1. Architectural Considerations A Review of Some Architectural Concepts

2. Organization of the Computing System Processor Input/ Output Memory System Interconnection The Computing System – Top Level Structure

3. Organization of the Computing System Processor –Controls the operation of the computing system and performs its data processing functions. Memory Sub-System –Stores data and programs. Input/Output Sub-System –Moves information between the computing system and its external environment. System Interconnection –Some mechanism that provides for communication among the processor, the memory and the I/O sub- systems.

4. The Processor Control Unit Registers Arithmetic and Logic Unit Internal Interconnection The Processor

5. Control Unit –Controls the operation of the processor. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) –Performs the system’s data processing functions Registers –Internal storage for the processor Internal Interconnection –A mechanism that provides communication among the control unit, ALU, and registers.

6. The Registers A number of registers exit within the processor and are intended for the temporary storage of information needed frequently and urgently. Can be classified into: –General Purpose Registers. Can be used as the programmer requires. –Special Purpose Registers. Can only be used for specific functions. –Stack Pointer. –Accumulator. –Pointers.

7. The Operation of the Processor Processors mainly operate based on a 3- state cycle: –Fetch. Bring the next instruction from memory into the processor. –Decode. Determine what is required. –Execute. Do it.

8. Details of the 3-State Cycle A special register in the processor – known as the program counter (PC) – always holds the address of the next instruction for execution. During the fetch cycle, the contents of the PC are copied to another special register – Memory Address Register (MAR) – which is connected to the address bus output of the processor. When the instruction is ready, it is read – in the form of a group of bits known as an opcode – using the processor’s data bus into yet another special register – the Instruction Register (IR). The contents of the IR are decoded to tell the processor what operation to perform and what the operands for the operation are. The processor uses its internal register and the ALU to perform the required operation.

9. The ALU The ALU is made up of several functional blocks that perform different arithmetic and logical operations on the operands. The ALU operations may generate certain conditions that are saved in the flags register. –Some typical flags are: sign, carry, zero and overflow. Overflow occurs when an arithmetic operation on signed numbers produces a wrong result because the result has more bits than can be held by the registers. The flags register together with the AC are collectively known as the Program Status Word – PSW.

10. Memory Sub-System Memory in a computing system is used for the storage of programs and data. –Could be temporary or permanent. How permanent is permanent? Memory is measured by two numbers: –The address space. How many different locations there are. –The access width. Maximum number of bits that can be accessed at once. –Both of these values may have different meanings depending on whether one is looking from the point of view of the processor or the memory.

11. Memory Sub-System Data and programs cannot co-exist. –Most computing systems treat memory as one continuous address space. It is up to the programmer to keep the program(s) and data separate. –However, some systems have physically separate program and data storage with separate address spaces.

12. Memory Many different types that vary in –Access speed. –Volatility. –Erasability. –Cost As a rule of thumb, the more useful the memory technology is, the more expensive it would be. Types: –RAM – Random Access Memory Dynamic – DRAM Static – SRAM –ROM – Read Only Memory Erasable – EPROM Electrically Erasable – EEPROM

13. Memory – RAM The proper name is Read/Write Memory. –But no one will understand what you are talking about. Allows both read and write operations. –Both operations are performed electrically. Volatile. –Used for temporary storage only. –If the power is disconnected, the contents become invalid. –Can be made non-volatile by using a battery for backup power.

14. Memory – RAM – DRAM Uses only one transistor per bit. –Data is stored as charge in capacitors. Charge on a capacitor decays naturally. –Therefore, DRAM needs refreshing even when powered to maintain the data. Refreshing is done by reading and re-writing each word every few milliseconds.

15. Memory – RAM – SRAM Consists of internal flip flop like structures that store the binary information. –No charges to leak. No refreshing is needed. –More complex construction. Larger cell, Less dense. –More expensive. –Faster.

16. Memory – ROM Read but cannot write. Non volatile. Manufactured with the data wired into the chip. –No room for mistakes. Not very effective for end-users.

17. Memory – EPROM Uses MOS transistors with insulating material that changes behavior when exposed to ultraviolet light. –Programmed electrically and erased optically. –Erasing can be repeated a relatively large but limited number of times (~100,000 times). –Erasing time ~20 minutes. Electrically read and written. –Before writing, ALL cells must be erased by exposure to ultraviolet light. Non volatile. More expensive than PROM.

18. Memory – EEPROM Uses the same floating-gate transistors, except that the insulating material is much thinner. –Its operation can be inverted using voltage. Can be written to any time without erasing the previous contents. –Only the bytes addressed are modified. –Write takes a relatively long time (~100  sec/byte). –Can be erased only about 10,000 times. Non volatile. Updatable in place. More expensive and less dense than EPROM.

19. Memory – The Stack The stack is an area of memory identified by the programmer for temporary storage of information. The stack is a LIFO structure. –Last In First Out. The stack normally grows backwards into memory. –In other words, the programmer defines the bottom of the stack and the stack grows up into reducing address range.

20. Memory – The Stack Processors usually contain a special register known as the Stack Pointer (SP). –This pointer is used to constantly point to the “top of the stack.” –Information is saved on the stack using a “push” operation. The information is copied to the location pointed to by the SP, then the SP is decremented. –Information is retrieved from the stack using a “pop” operation. The SP is incremented, then the information is copied from the location pointed to by the SP. –There must be a pop for every push.

21. Memory – Speed The speed of memory is measured by two numbers: –Access Time. How long it takes from the time the address is ready until the data becomes ready. –Cycle Time. How soon after the previous access can the memory be accessed again.

22. The I/O Sub-System Interface between the processor, memory and one or more peripherals. Can be classified into: –Serial Single wire with the data being transferred sequentially. –Parallel Multiple wires with the data being transferred concurrently. Several possible implementation techniques: –Programmed –Interrupt driven

23. Programmed I/O Processor has direct control over I/O –Sensing status –Read/write commands –Transferring data CPU waits for I/O module to complete operation Wastes CPU time Two types: –I/O port-based. –Memory-mapped

24. I/O port-based I/O I/O ports are connections consisting of groups of parallel bits connecting into and out of the computing system. –Physically, the ports are made of either tri-state buffers for input or latches for output. Each port is identified by a unique port number. –The processor uses special instructions to access these ports. –It produces the port number on its address bus output when it is attempting to access the port. –The hardware uses the port number to activate (enable) the proper port.

25. Memory-mapped I/O Some systems allow “memory-mapped” I/O where the I/O devices are treated like memory locations. –The processor would use memory access instructions to access these devices. –I/O devices and memory locations cannot have the same address. Therefore, we lose memory area when we use memory-mapped I/O.

26. Interrupt-driven I/O Instead of having the processor waste time constantly checking on the I/O devices, we can have the devices “interrupt” the processor when they need attention. An interrupt is defined as “an event requiring immediate attention.” –Extremely important in real-time environments. When the processor is interrupted, it branches to a special routine known as an “interrupt service routine” (ISR). –The ISR is written to handle the specific event that occurred. –An ISR may interrogate an I/O device to determine the required activity and perform it.

27. Measuring the Speed of a Processor The proper way to measure the speed of a processor is not by counting Hz. What’s the proper way? –One aspect of the speed of a processor is “throughput”. Which is defined as the number of instructions executed per second. –Another aspect is how well does the processor’s instruction set support the expected usage of the processor. –The match between the processor and its bus and memory can affect the apparent overall speed of the system. –The best method for comparing processor is to compare their performance on standardized applications known as “benchmarks.”