1. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings PowerPoint Lectures for Biology, Seventh Edition Neil Campbell and Jane Reece Lectures by Chris Romero Chapter 23 The Evolution of Populations

2. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Overview: The Smallest Unit of Evolution One misconception is that organisms evolve, in the Darwinian sense, during their lifetimes Natural selection acts on individuals, but only populations evolve Genetic variations in populations contribute to evolution

3. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Concept 23.1: Population genetics provides a foundation for studying evolution Microevolution is change in the genetic makeup of a population from generation to generation

4. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Modern Synthesis Population genetics is the study of how populations change genetically over time Population genetics integrates Mendelian genetics with the Darwinian theory of evolution by natural selection This modern synthesis focuses on populations as units of evolution

5. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Gene Pools and Allele Frequencies A population is a localized group of individuals capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring The gene pool is the total aggregate of genes in a population at any one time The gene pool consists of all gene loci in all individuals of the population

6. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Hardy-Weinberg Theorem The Hardy-Weinberg theorem describes a population that is not evolving It states that frequencies of alleles and genotypes in a population’s gene pool remain constant from generation to generation, provided that only Mendelian segregation and recombination of alleles are at work Mendelian inheritance p reserves genetic variation in a population

7. LE 23-4 Generation 3 25% C R C R Generation 4 50% C R C W 25% C W C W 50% C W gametes 50% C R come together at random 25% C R C R 50% C R C W 25% C W C W Alleles segregate, and subsequent generations also have three types of flowers in the same proportions gametes Generation 2 Generation 1 CRCRCRCR CWCWCWCW genotype Plants mate All C R C W (all pink flowers) 50% C R 50% C W gametes come together at random X

8. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Preservation of Allele Frequencies In a given population where gametes contribute to the next generation randomly, allele frequencies will not change

9. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium describes a population in which random mating occurs It describes a population where allele frequencies do not change

10. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings If p and q represent the relative frequencies of the only two possible alleles in a population at a particular locus, then – p 2 + 2pq + q 2 = 1 – And p 2 and q 2 represent the frequencies of the homozygous genotypes and 2pq represents the frequency of the heterozygous genotype

11. LE 23-5 Gametes for each generation are drawn at random from the gene pool of the previous generation: 80% C R (p = 0.8) 20% C W (q = 0.2) Sperm C R (80%) C W (20%) pqp2p2 16% C R C W 64% C R Eggs C W (20%) C R (80%) 16% C R C W qp 4% C W q2q2

12. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Conditions for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium The Hardy-Weinberg theorem describes a hypothetical population In real populations, allele and genotype frequencies do change over time

13. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings The five conditions for non-evolving populations are rarely met in nature: – Extremely large population size – No gene flow – No mutations – Random mating – No natural selection

14. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Sexual Recombination Sexual recombination is far more important than mutation in producing the genetic differences that make adaptation possible

15. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Concept 23.3: Natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow can alter a population’s genetic composition Three major factors alter allele frequencies and bring about most evolutionary change: – Natural selection – Genetic drift – Gene flow

16. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Natural Selection Differential success in reproduction results in certain alleles being passed to the next generation in greater proportions

17. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Bottleneck Effect The bottleneck effect is a sudden change in the environment that may drastically reduce the size of a population The resulting gene pool may no longer be reflective of the original population’s gene pool

18. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Understanding the bottleneck effect can increase understanding of how human activity affects other species

19. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Founder Effect The founder effect occurs when a few individuals become isolated from a larger population It can affect allele frequencies in a population

20. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Concept 23.4: Natural selection is the primary mechanism of adaptive evolution Natural selection accumulates and maintains favorable genotypes in a population

21. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Genetic Variation Genetic variation occurs in individuals in populations of all species It is not always heritable

22. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Variation Within a Population Both discrete and quantitative characters contribute to variation within a population Discrete characters can be classified on an either- or basis Quantitative characters vary along a continuum within a population

23. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Polymorphism Phenotypic polymorphism describes a population in which two or more distinct morphs for a character are represented in high enough frequencies to be readily noticeable Genetic polymorphisms are the heritable components of characters that occur along a continuum in a population

24. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Measuring Genetic Variation Population geneticists measure polymorphisms in a population by determining the amount of heterozygosity at the gene and molecular levels Average heterozygosity measures the average percent of loci that are heterozygous in a population

25. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Variation Between Populations Most species exhibit geographic variation differences between gene pools of separate populations or population subgroups

26. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Some examples of geographic variation occur as a cline, which is a graded change in a trait along a geographic axis

27. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings A Closer Look at Natural Selection From the range of variations available in a population, natural selection increases frequencies of certain genotypes, fitting organisms to their environment over generations

28. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Directional, Disruptive, and Stabilizing Selection Selection favors certain genotypes by acting on the phenotypes of certain organisms Three modes of selection: – Directional – Disruptive – Stabilizing

29. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Directional selection favors individuals at one end of the phenotypic range Disruptive selection favors individuals at both extremes of the phenotypic range Stabilizing selection favors intermediate variants and acts against extreme phenotypes

30. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Evolutionary Enigma of Sexual Reproduction Sexual reproduction produces fewer reproductive offspring than asexual reproduction, a so-called “reproductive handicap”

31. LE 23-16 Asexual reproduction Female Generation 1 Generation 2 Generation 3 Generation 4 Sexual reproduction Female Male

32. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Sexual reproduction produces genetic variation that may aid in disease resistance

33. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Why Natural Selection Cannot Fashion Perfect Organisms Evolution is limited by historical constraints Adaptations are often compromises Chance and natural selection interact Selection can only edit existing variations