1. Principles of Behavior Analysis

2. What is Positive Behavioral Programming (PBS)? 4 PBS is a gradual process of behavior change. It involves a de-emphasis on aversive strategies and an emphasis on systematic instruction in more effective ways of behaving. Positive programming teaches new behavior over time and is based on a full functional analysis of problem behaviors (LeVigna and Donnellan, 1986)

3. Traditional Behavior Management versus Positive Behavioral Support (PBS) 4 Traditional –narrowly focused on defining behavior(s) and applying consequences AFTER behavior occurs. 4 PBS –expanded focus, including prevention role of context in behavior attending to the meaning/function of behavior developing skills, especially communication

4. Principles of Applied Behavior Analysis (Kerr and Nelson, 2006) 4 Principle 1: Behavior is controlled, or maintained by its consequences 4 Principle 2: Behavior is strengthened by reinforcement 4 Principle 3: Behavior is weakened by withholding the consequences that have maintained it 4 Principle 4: Behavior is weakened by punishment 4 Principle 5: To effectively influence behavior, consequences must be consistently and immediately delivered following the behavior 4 Principle 6: Behavior is also strengthened, weakened, or maintained via modeling

5. Behavior Analysis: Beliefs About Behavior 4 Behavior is related to and governed by its context. 4 Behavior can be interpreted as functional (often communicative), purposeful and meaningful to the individual. 4 Though Behaviorists target observable and measurable behaviors, they acknowledge that behavior is influenced by internal events (e.g. physiological conditions or emotional states) and factors outside the immediate context including relationships, activity patterns, and lifestyle issues - often called “setting events”

6. The Communicative Value of Behavior 4 Behavior is often used to communicate wants, needs, or feelings that can not be expressed through verbal means (especially with non-verbal children). –If a child is not being heard, her behavior is the easiest way for her to get noticed –Examine the messages of behavior –For non-verbal children, an alternative communication system should be developed

7. The Behavioral Perspective (Cont.) 4 Behavioral interventions operate independent of an individual’s diagnosis. –Therefore, it’s less productive to look for behavioral interventions which are disability-specific. Instead organize interventions based on understanding the individual and the environment. 4 Behavioral Science emphasizes Empiricism, Replication, and Parsimony

8. Behavior Analysis Asks the Question: Why is this child engaging in this behavior, in this setting, at this time?

9. The A-B-C’s of Behavior (Three Term Contingency) 4 Antecedent (Stimulus) – an event, action, or circumstance that occurs before a behavior. 4 Behavior (Response) –any observable and measurable act of an individual 4 Consequence (Stimulus) –any action or response which follows a behavior

10. Stimulus Change 4 Environmental changes (presentation or occurrence of a stimulus) that influence behavior (the response) –The Environment is NOT a static entity…stimulus changes are occurring dynamically – Stimulus change occurs before (Antecedent) and after the response (Consequence) –Stimulus change can have both immediate (but temporary), and delayed (but relatively permanent) effects on behavior

11. Behavioral Contrasts and Stimulus Change 4 Contrast refers to a relative change in experience as a result of the behavior (and subsequent consequence). 4 Behavioral Learning often occurs through contrasts. –High contrast = low repetition learning –Low contrast = high repetition learning 4 Contrasts are most distinct when there are marked differences between the consequences for appropriate and inappropriate behavior.

12. BehavioralBehavioral ContrastsContrasts

13. Antecedents: Discriminative Stimulus –A discriminative stimulus is an antecedent event that signals the behavior will be reinforced or punished. It increases the likelihood of a response (or non-response) occurring. 4 S D : stimulus that when present, evokes behavior because in the past, the behavior has been reinforced (positively or negatively) in its presence. 4 S DELTA : a stimulus that when present, weakens behavior because in the past, that behavior has been extinguished (or contacted a leaner schedule of reinforcement) in its presence. 4 S P : a stimulus that when present, weakens behavior because in the past, that behavior has been punished (positively or negatively) in its presence.

14. Antecedents: Stimulus Control 4 Refers to the controlling relation between the discriminative stimulus and the operant response (what Skinner called attention)attention 4 Stimulus control is established when a reinforcer/punisher is consistently delivered following an operant response that has been evoked by a discriminative stimulus. reinforcerpunisher 4 The three-term contingency lies at the root of stimulus control.three-term contingency

15. Four Parameters that Impact Stimulus Control 4 Potency of Consequence (and S D ) 4 Reliability of the S D in predicting the consequence 4 Immediacy of Consequence 4 Cost of attaining the consequence

16. Setting Events and Establishing Operations (EO) 4 Setting Events and EO’s are antecedent conditions that increase the probability that challenging behavior will occur. They affect attention to the SD and the power of consequences. 4 Examples Staff changes Missed medications Irregular sleep patterns Illness Missed meals Argument/fights Prior Learning Cultural Norms, Values, and Customs Skill deficits

17. Antecedent (S D ) Behavior Consequence Establishing Operation (EO) The Role of Establishing Operations

18. Behaviors 4 What the Behavior looks like, or Topography, is least important aspect of behavior analysis…we are concerned with function 4 Response Class: Behaviors that may vary in terms of topography (e.g., Yelling v. Spitting), but are similar in their function (e.g., Escape from task) 4 Repertoire: All of the behaviors that a person is capable of performing

19. Defining Target Behaviors 4 It is imperative to clearly define the behavior(s) of concern. The target behavior should be: –Observable –Measurable Examples of poorly defined target behaviors: rudeness, aggressiveness, spiteful, etc.. Examples of well-defined target behaviors: punching others, cursing at parents, missing curfew, etc..

20. In a Nutshell… 4 All Behavior occurs for either of two reasons: 1. To Gain a Pleasurable Consequence 2. To Avoid or Escape Painful Consequence

21. Consequences: Function of Problem Behavior 4 The function of the problem behavior refers to the “why” of a behavior. That is, why is a behavior occurring or what function does it serve. –Common Functions of Problem Behaviors Attention Escape Tangible Reward Sensory Stimulation/Automatic Reinforcement * A behavior can have more than one function, such is the case with concurrent contingencies (i.e., more than one contingency of reinforcement or punishment is available at the same time for the same behavior.

22. Reinforcement 4 Any event that maintains or increases the future probability of the response that it follows. –Positive Reinforcement: presentation of an desired stimulus (e.g., giving a child a sticker for completing a task, the sticker reinforces the behavior, that is, it increases the likelihood that the child will complete tasks in the future. –Negative Reinforcement: removal or avoidance of an aversive stimulus (e.g., taking an aspirin for a headache, the aspirin removes the aversive stimulus (headache), thereby increasing the likelihood that you will take the aspirin again in the future.

23. Reinforcement (Cont.) 4 Reinforcement is a Teacher’s Ally –1. Reinforcement increases desired behavior –2. Reinforcement signals to your child that his behavior is being monitored –3. Reinforcement provides feedback to the child concerning his behavior

24. Reinforcement (Cont.) 4 Satiation –The phenomenon where reinforcers lose their ability to increase behavior. Typically occurs when too much reinforcement is given. 4 Habituation –Brain ignores a constant stimulus because it provides no new information or results in no further consequence.

25. Reinforcement Schedules 4 Continuous –reinforcing the child each time she performs a desired behavior 4 Variable –providing occasional, or intermittent, reinforcement for desired behaviors A slot machine is a good example of a variable reinforcer. Money only comes out occasionally, but when it does it reinforces your behavior. That is, the intermittent pay-out increases the likelihood that you will play the slot machine in the future.

26. Extinction 4 Eliminating reinforcement for a behavior that has previously been reinforced –(e.g., if it is determined that attention is the reinforcer, then it is important to ignore the problem behavior, thereby restricting access to the reinforcer.) –identify the reinforcer –restrict access to the reinforcer when the problem behavior occurs –make a plan for when behavior escalates (aka, response or extinction burst)

27. Replacement Behaviors or Alternative Behaviors 4 A more “acceptable” or positive behavior that serves the same function as the problem behavior* 4 Behavior must not require additional effort to perform as compared to the problem behavior 4 Must result in an equally powerful consequence 4 Replacement behavior should be in the child’s repertoire, or else it should be taught to the child * It is not always feasible nor logical to use replacement behaviors that serve the same function as the problem behavior (ex. Task avoidance behaviors). In these cases, we can teach and reinforce a behavior or skill that serves a more adaptable purpose

28. Punishment 4 An event that DECREASES the probability of a behavior occurring in the future: –the presentation of something aversive (e.g. restriction, time-out, etc..) –the removal of something positive (e.g., taking away a favorite game, not letting the child go to a friends house). NOTE: Punishment differs from negative reinforcement in that punishment DECREASES a future behavior, whereas negative reinforcement, INCREASES a future behavior.

29. Behavior Chains 4 A sequence of discriminative stimuli and responses, each response in which produces a change in the environment that acts as a discriminative stimulus (or operandum) for the next response. Each stimulus within the chain reinforces the response that precedes it, and act as an S D for the response that follows it.

30. Shaping 4 Shaping: Teaching a target behavior by reinforcement of successive approximations of the target behavior.

31. Generalization 4 Generalization is the spread of the changes in behavior engendered by a contingency to other stimulus conditions (stimulus generalization), or other responses (response generalization), that have not been exposed to that contingency. The extent of the effect is related to the similarity of the other stimulus or response class characteristics.

32. Stimulus Generalization 4 Stimulus generalization (often referred to as the "rub-off effect") means the more similar two stimuli are, the more likely a person is to respond to them as if they were the same stimulus. –Same response in the presence of different stimuli

33. Response Generalization 4 Performance of similar behaviors (Same response class) to obtain same consequence 4 Different response to same antecedent, with similar consequence

34. Positive Behavioral Programming: A Summary 4 Positive Behavioral Programming should Achieve the Following: –Prevention and Elimination –Teach & reinforce alternative skills and behaviors –Identify the function of the behaviors –Address Establishing Operations