1. INFO 272. Qualitative Research Methods

2. Outline 1) The status of images in society 2) Compositional interpretation – some vocabulary 3) Content Analysis of Images 4) Semiotic Analysis

3. Source: http://www.thememoryhole. org/media/evening- standard-crowd.htm A New Era of Digitally Doctored Images

4. Source: http://www.thememoryhole. org/media/evening- standard-crowd.htm

5. Compositional Interpretation 1. content – what is the image of? Religious, historical, literary themes/events 2. color – hue, saturation, value/brightness 3. spatial organization – perspective, point of view, eye level 4. light source

6. Compositional Interpretation Moving Images 1. Screen ratio 2. Screen frame – open or closed 3. Screen plane 4. Shot distance 5. Focus 6. Angle

7. Compositional Interpretation Moving Images 1. Revolving: Pan, Tilt 2. Tracking, Crane 3. Zoom Editing 1. Continuity cut (classic Hollywood) 2. Jump cuts (MTV)

8. 1) Sample documents (can even do a random sample) 2) Divide documents into units 1. syntactical vs. semantic elements 2. Articles, words, sentences, themes, propositions 3) Construct a coding frame and assign codes to units 4) Calculate frequencies Content Analysis of Images

9. Reading National Geographic (Lutz and Collins 1993)

10. Content Analysis of Images How photos were coded: 1. World location 2. Unit of article organization (region, nation-state, ethnic group, other) … 1. Camera gaze of person photographed 2. Westerners in photo 3. Skin color 4. Dress style (“western” or local) 5. Male nudity 6. Female nudity 7. Technological type present (simple handmade tools, machinery)

11.  What exactly do frequencies mean?  Does more often mean more important? What about important omissions?  Good coding schemes need extensive piloting, trial and error  Binary nature of codes Shortcomings of Content Analysis

12. Semiology/Semiotics 1. Language is relational not referential 2. Signifier, signified, referent Furthermore – icon, index, symbol 3. Studying how signs come together and work as codes Denotation (a baby, base-level meaning) vs. connotation (higher-level meaning, i.e. innocence)

13. Semiology/Semiotics Two main research issues: 1. Analysis of signs in systems of relations through which they get their meaning 2. How a particular sign system divides up the world (and what are the social implications)

14. Semiotics: Method 1. denotational phase, list all elements in the image and any accompanying text 2. ask what does each element connote? 3. how do the elements relate to each other? 4. what cultural knowledges are required in order to read the material? (connection to wider systems of meaning) [source: Bauer and Gaskell]

15. Semiotics: Example

17.  Implicit presumption about readers as ‘cultural dupes’  Elaborate, perhaps overly complex terminology  Lack of concern with surrounding social practices – but see ‘social semiotics’ Shortcomings of Semiotics

18. Summary  Content analysis on large quantities of text/imagery (news media)  Semiotics on persuasive/rhetorical texts/imagery (advertisements)  Semiotics requires substantial cultural knowledge  How do we handle what is notably absent, concealed?

19. Visual Methodologies, Gillian Rose – highly recommended Further Reading