1. Sustaining Ecosystems
Land Use, Conservation, Management & Deforestation, Biodiversity and Forest Management

2. We abuse land because we regard it as a commodity belonging to us
We abuse land because we regard it as a commodity belonging to us. When we see land as a community to which we belong we may begin to use it with love and respect.
Aldo Leopold

3. 5 Reasons Forests are Commercially Important:
Lumber for housing
Biomass for fuelwood
Pulp for papers
Medicines
Food (agriculture)

4. 5 Reasons forests are ecologically important:
Slow down runoff/erosion
Water recharge for surface/groundwater
Influence climate (water cycle, photosynthesis, cellular respiration)
Vital to global carbon cycle
Air purification

5. Why is Biodiversity considered a key environmental problem?
A biological wealth vital to all life & economies
The ecological processes associated with biodiversity such as matter cycling, energy flow, and species interactions is vital to all life and economies
Biological consequences of biodiversity loss through environmental degradation impact lives and economies.

6. The ecological health of an area are described in terms of biodiversity richness and ecological integrity which is the conditions and natural processes that generate and maintain biodiversity and allow evolutionary change as a key mechanism for adapting to changes in environmental conditions.
Conservation Biology
“maintaining earth’s life support system”

7. Age of Conservation
Between increased involvement of federal government
Theodore Roosevelt
Persuaded Congress to give him power to designate public land as federal wildlife refuges.
Established first wildlife refugee, 1903 at Pelican Island, Florida for preservation of the endangered brown pelican
Tripled the size of the forest reserves and transferred administration from DOI to Dept of Agriculture
1905 US Forest Service created
Gifford Pinchot as its first chief
Used principles of sustainable yield and multiple use

8. Public Lands in the US USA largest area = public lands
Mostly Alaska (73%) & West US (22%)
Classified as:
multiple use lands
Moderately restricted lands
Restricted-use lands

9. Multiple Use Lands Grasslands & Forests managed by US Forest Service
Principles of Management:
Sustainable yield (cutting trees no faster than they could regenerate)
Multiple use (timber harvesting, grazing, recreation, wildlife conservation)
Actual uses:
Logging
Mining
livestock grazing
oil extraction
Recreation
sport/commercial fishing
Hunting
watershed, soil & wildlife conservation

10. Multiple Use Lands
“National Resource Lands” – Alaska are managed by the Bureau of Land Management managed under multiple use principal with an emphasis on providing secure domestic supply of energy and strategic minerals and on preserving rangelands for livestock under a permit system.

11. Moderately Restricted-Use Lands
508 National Wildlife Refuges managed by USFWS
Protect habitats and breeding areas for waterfowl and big game to provide a harvestable supply for hunters, protect endangered species
Some permittable uses include:
Sport hunting
Trapping
Sport/commercial fishing
Oil & gas development
Mining
Logging
Grazing
Military activities
Farming
DOI must find these uses “compatible” with the purpose of each refuge

12. Restricted Use Lands
Permitted Uses: camping, hiking, sport fishing, boating, sport hunting, mining, and oil/gas drilling
49% of the National Park System is designated as wilderness area.
Managed by National Park Service, FWS, Bureau of Land Management (BLM)
375 National Parks include major parks, recreational areas, monuments, memorial, battlefields, historic sites, parkways, trails, rivers, seashores, and lakeshores
Example: Fire Island National Seashore

13. Restricted Use Lands T. Roosevelt – set up initial system
Carter made most additions, especially Alaska in 1980
Clinton added a new national monument area the size of Yellowstone in 1996.

14. Property Rights Controversy
Paralyze government regulation of public lands
Local regulations would take precedence over federal regulations
Ultimately limit environmental degradation
Private industry using public lands would pursue court battles. Would sue federal government for losses  compensation
Eminent Domain – force a citizen to sell property needed for public good. (5th Amendment) compensation for property loss is debatable.
If ALL properties including wetlands had to be compensated for eminent domain property takings there would be no money left for regulatory branch.
“Pay me and I won’t pollute, develop this land, build an incinerator or landfill here, or fill in this wetland!”

15. Managing & Sustaining Rangelands
Rangeland: land that supplies forage or vegetation for grazing (grass-eating) and browsing (shrub-eating) animals.
They act as watershed areas habitat for wildlife
Supports ruminants: digest cellulose in grasses and convert it to meat & milk
Cows, sheep, goats (domesticated)
Rangelands also provide areas for hiking, camping, and hunting

16. Managing & Sustaining Rangelands
Overgrazing – occurs when too many animals graze for too long and exceed the carrying capacity of a grassland area
Impacts from overgrazing:
Decrease biodiversity
Soil compaction  decrease water holding capacity
Increase erosion because it becomes drier, prickly pear cactus and mesquite (shrub) dominate  desertification
Impacts adjacent riparian zones
Riparian Zone – thin strips of lush vegetation along streams which prevent floods by absorption of flood waters
Overgrazing causes increased soil erosion along banks of stream/rivers  mud down streams (turbidity increases, decrease in dissolved oxygen)  degraded water quality

17. How should rangelands by managed?
Goal: maximize livestock productivity without overgrazing rangeland vegetation
Methods:
Stocking rate – most widely used. Control the number of each kind of animal/unit area so an area’s carrying capacity is not exceeded “resource partitioning by ranchers”
Continuous grazing – occurs throughout the year and requires little rancher intervention. Problem – they tend to overgraze flat areas and riparian zones
Deferred-Rotation Grazing – moving livestock between 2 or more range areas to allow perennial grasses to recover from grazing
Ranchers must also consider predator control – coyotes, grey wolf, grizzly bear
Solution: penning young lambs/cattle together for 30 days  allow them to graze together. Cattle kicking predators, protecting sheep

18. Grazing on public lands:
Big Business pay very low fees for permits
How can it become more sustainable?
Limit grazing in riparian areas
Ban grazing on stressed rangeland
Competitive bidding for grazing permits
Allow environmental groups to purchase grazing permits, even if they choose not to graze the land
Raise grazing fees to fair market value
Abolish rancher-dominated advisory boards

19. Managing & Sustaining National Parks
54 Nationally,1100 Globally
Parks are threatened by:
Natural resources in developing countries
Poachers
popularity increases, but budget cuts to park service (1 park ranger = 84,000 visitors)
Plagued with litter, noise, traffic jams
Increased crime
Invasion of non-native species
Yellowstone ~1000 snowmobiles/day
Tailpipe admissions of 1.7 million cars/year!
Vanishing predators (wolves, bear, coyotes)

20. Developing Countries Integrated Management Plans (IMP)
Combine conservation practices with sustainable development of resources in and adjacent to parks
Core Protection Areas
Buffer Areas (surrounding the core)
Commercial logging, sustainable grazing by livestock, sustainable hunting/fishing
Involve residents in developing management and restoration plans for the park
IMP’s need adequate funding to be successful and inner core areas must be large enough to sustain larger animals

21. How can US National Parks be improved?
Presently managed under “natural regulation” – as if they were wilderness ecosystems that would sustain themselves if left alone.
Annual budget $1.5 billion
$6 billion backlog of maintenance, repairs & high priority construction to accommodate increase visitors numbers
92% budget to spent on visitor services
7% spent on natural resources protection
1% spent on environmental research for ecological
management strategies

22. How can US Nat. Parks be improved?
All entrance fees used for management, upkeep and repair instead of going into national treasury
Require IMP’s for all parks and nearby federal lands.
Increase new parkland near the most threatened parks
Increase budget for buying private lands within parks
Identify all available visitor parking
Increase private concession fees to 22% presently pay 6.7% of gross income
Concessionaires should lease, not own the land
Increase entrance fees
Restrict numbers of visitors
Encourage volunteers to give lectures/tours NOT National Park Service personnel
Encourage donations from individuals/corporations fo public maintenance/repair

23. Biodiversity Sanctuaries
Set up Biosphere Reserves worldwide (presently 300)
Goal: large enough to support species and combine conservation and sustainable use of natural resources
Conservation biologists believe that in order to protect biodiversity and ecological integrity is through a worldwide network of reserves, parks, wildlife sanctuaries, wilderness and other protected areas.
Minimum 10% of globes land area!
Based on theory of Island Biogeography (“habitat islands”)
Many countries can’t set aside large tracts of land
Establish wildlife corridors connecting small-medium sized bioreserve areas. (allows for migration and genetic diversity)

24. 1996 World Wildlife Fund
Identified 217 terrestrial, marine, and freshwater eco-regions in greatest need of protection (Earth’s most bio-diverse countries) Australia, North S America, Mexico, India, China, Parts of Africa
Most economists, developers, and miners disagree with protecting these areas!

25. Why preserve Wilderness Areas?
US Wilderness Act of 1964
Act authorized the government to protect undeveloped tract of public land as part of National Wilderness System unless Congress later decides they are needed for the national good. Land in this system is to be used only for nondestructive forms of recreation such as hiking and camping.
Why preserve them?
Aesthetic Value
Psychological value
Preserve biodiversity and ecological integrity
Preserve for scenic/recreational purposes
Protect areas from exploitation and degradation

26. US National Wild & Scenic Rivers System
1968 National Wild & Scenic Rivers Act
Protected if have outstanding scenic, recreational, geological, wildlife, historical or cultural value
Free of development
Only 0.2% of rivers listed
Urge for 1500 more to be added

27. US National Trails System
1968 – Protects scenic and historic hiking trails
Low priority, receives little funding