1. Access Psychology Hannah Butler hbutler@stvincent.ac.uk

2. In your groups…. So, far we have looked at : Experiments Observations What type of research do you believe to be the most successful and why?

3. Psychological research-what’s it all about? Psychology researchers study a wide variety of topics, ranging from the development of infants to the behaviour of social groups. Psychologists use the scientific method to investigate questions both systematically and empirically. What is meant by the scientific method?

4. What is the scientific method? The goals of psychological studies are to describe, explain, predict and perhaps influence mental processes or behaviours. In order to do this, psychologists utilize the scientific method to conduct psychological research. The scientific method is a set of principles and procedures that are used by researchers to develop questions, collect data and reach conclusions.

5. What are the goals of scientific research in Psychology? Researchers seek not only to describe behaviours and explain why these behaviours occur; they also strive to create research that can be used to predict and even change human behaviour.

6. The 4 goals To describe To explain To predict To change

7. 1) To describe One of the first goals of psychology is simply to describe behaviour. Through describing the behaviour of humans and other animals, we are better able to understand it and gain a better perspective on what is considered normal and abnormal. Psychology researchers utilize a range of research methods to help describe behaviour including naturalistic observation, case studies and surveys.

8. 2) To explain As you might imagine, psychologists are also interested in explaining behaviour in addition to merely describing it. Why do people do the things they do? What factors contribute to development, personality, social behaviour, and mental health problems? Throughout psychology's history, many different theories have emerged to help explain various aspects of human behaviour. A few examples of such theories including classical conditioning and attachment theories.

9. 3)Too predict Not surprisingly, another major goal of psychology is to make predictions about how we think and act. Once we understand more about what happens and why it happens, we can use that information to make predictions about when, why, and how it might happen again in the future. Successfully predicting behaviour is also one of the best ways to know if we truly understand the underlying causes of our actions. Prediction can also allow psychologists to make guesses about human behaviour without necessarily understanding the mechanisms underlying the phenomena. For example, if researchers notice that scores on a specific aptitude test can be used to predict college dropout rates, that information can then be used to estimate how many students in a particular group might drop out of school each year.

10. 4) To change Finally, and perhaps most importantly, psychology strives to change, influence, or control behaviour in order to make positive and lasting changes in people's lives. In our previous example, researchers might take what they know about the link between scores on an aptitude test and dropout rates and use the information to develop programs designed to help students stay in college. From treating mental illness to enhancing human well-being, changing human behaviour is a huge focus of psychology.

11. In your groups Can you apply the 4 goals of psychological research to the studies/experiments/observations we have looked at?

12. Survey methods

13. What is a survey A survey is a data collection tool used to gather information about individuals. Surveys are commonly used in psychology research to collect self-report data from study participants. A survey may focus on factual information about individuals, or it might aim to collect the opinions of the survey takers. A survey can be administered in a couple of different ways. In one method known as a structured interview, the researcher asks each participant the questions. In the other method known as a questionnaire, the participant fills out the survey on his or her own.

14. Remind and recap…. What are the four goals of psychological research?

15. Questionnaires Questionnaires can be thought of as a kind of written interview. They can be carried out face to face, by telephone or post. Questionnaires provide a relatively cheap, quick and efficient way of obtaining large amounts of information from a large sample of people. Data can be collected relatively quickly because the researcher would not need to be present when the questionnaires were completed. This is useful for large populations when interviews would be impractical.

16. What strengths and weaknesses can you think of?

17. Strengths Questionnaires provide a relatively cheap, quick and efficient way of obtaining large amounts of information from a large sample of people. Data can be collected relatively quickly because the researcher would not need to be present when the questionnaires were completed. This is useful for large populations when interviews would be impractical.

18. Weaknesses However, a problem with questionnaire is that respondents may lie due to social desirability. Most people want to present a positive image of themselves and so may lie or bend the truth to look good, e.g. pupils would exaggerate revision duration.....do you agree???? Also the language of a questionnaire should be appropriate to the vocabulary of the group of people being studied. For example, the researcher must change the language of questions to match the social background of respondents' age / educational level / social class / ethnicity etc.

19. You have 5 minutes to write down the following….. What is meant by the scientific method in psychology? What are the 4 goals of psychological research? Definition of a survey. Definition of questionnaire. 2 strengths of questionnaires. 2 weaknesses of questionnaires.

20. The interview method Interviews are different from questionnaires as they involve social interaction. Unlike questionnaires researchers need training in how to interview (which costs money). Researchers can ask different types of questions which in turn generate different types of data. For example, closed questions provide people with a fixed set of responses, whereas open questions allow people to express what they think in their own words. Sometimes researchers use an interview schedule. This is a set of prepared questions designed to be asked exactly as worded. Interviews schedules have a standardised format which means the same questions are asked to each interviewee in same order. Quite often interviews will be recorded by the researcher and the data written up as a transcript (a written account of interview questions and answers) which can be analyzed at a later date.

21. The interviewer must ensure that they take special care when interviewing vulnerable groups, such as the children. For example, children have a limited attention span and for this reason lengthy interviews should be avoided. Also the language the interviewer uses should be appropriate to the vocabulary of the group of people being studied. For example, the researcher must change the language of questions to match the social background of respondents' age / educational level / social class / ethnicity etc. It should be noted that interviews may not be the best method to use for researching sensitive topics (e.g. truancy in schools) as people may feel more comfortable completing a questionnaire in private. Interviews take many forms, some very informal, others more structured.

22. For what type of research would you conduct a questionnaire? Why? What type of research would you avoid using a questionnaire? Why?

23. Structured interviews This is also known as a formal interview (like a job interview). The questions are asked in a set / standardized order and the interviewer will not deviate from the interview schedule or probe beyond the answers received (so they are not flexible). These are based on structured, closed-ended questions.

24. Strengths 1. Structured interviews are easy to replicate as a fixed set of closed questions are used, which are easy to quantify – this means it easy to test for reliability. 2. Structured interviews are fairly quick to conduct which means that many interviews can take place within a short amount of time. This means a large sample can be obtained resulting in the findings being representative and having the ability to be generalized to a large population.

25. Weaknesses 1. Structure interviews are not flexible. This means new questions cannot be asked impromptu (i.e. during the interview) as an interview schedule must be followed. 2. The answers from structured interviews lack detail as only closed questions are asked which generates quantitative data. This means a research will won't know why a person behave in a certain way.

26. Unstructured interviews These are sometimes referred to as ‘Discovery Interviews’ & are more like a ‘Guided Conservation’ than a strict structured interview. An interview schedule might not be used, and even if one is used, they will contain open- ended questions that can be asked in any order. Some questions might be added / missed as the Interview progresses.

27. Strengths 1. Unstructured interviews are more flexible as questions can be adapted and changed depending on the respondents’ answers. The interview does can deviate from the interview schedule. 2. Unstructured interviews generate qualitative data through the use of open questions. This allows the respondent to talk in some depth, choosing their own words. This helps the researcher develop a real sense of a person’s understanding of a situation. 3. They also have increased validity because it gives the interviewer the opportunity to probe for a deeper understanding, ask for clarification & allow the interviewee to steer the direction of the interview etc.

28. Weaknesses 1. Can be time consuming to conduct the unstructured interview and analyze the qualitative data. 2. Employing and training interviewers is expensive, and not as cheap as questionnaires. For example, certain skills may be needed by the interviewer. These include the ability to establish rapport & knowing when to probe.

29. Can you think of any examples of structured interviews? Can you think of any questionnaires? What are the differences?

30. Remind and recap What are the 4 goals of psychological research? What is a survey? What are the differences between open and closed questions? What is the differences between qualitative and quantitative data? What is a questionnaire? What is a structured interview? What is an un-structured interview?

31. Surveys are generally standardized to ensure that they have reliability and validity. Standardization is also important so that the results can be generalized to the larger population. What is meant by reliability? What is meant by validity?

32. Reliability When we call someone or something reliable, we mean that they are consistent and dependable. Reliability is also an important component of a good psychological test. After all, a test would not be very valuable if it was inconsistent and produced different results every time. How do psychologists define reliability? What influence does it have on psychological testing?

33. Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure. A test is considered reliable if we get the same result repeatedly. For example, if a test is designed to measure a trait (such as introversion (remember Eyesenk), then each time the test is administered to a subject, the results should be approximately the same. Unfortunately, it is impossible to calculate reliability exactly, but it can be estimated in a number of different ways.

34. What factors do you think could affect reliability?

35. Factors that can influence reliability There are a number of different factors that can have an influence on the reliability of a measure. First and perhaps most obviously, it is important that the thing that is being measured be fairly stable and consistent. If the measured variable is something that changes regularly, the results of the test will not be consistent. Aspects of the testing situation can also have an effect on reliability. For example, if the test is administered in a room that is extremely hot, respondents might be distracted and unable to complete the test to the best of their ability. This can have an influence on the reliability of the measure. Other things like fatigue, stress, sickness, motivation, poor instructions, and environmental distractions can also hurt reliability.

36. Validity When people talk about psychological tests, they often ask whether the test is valid or not. What exactly does this mean? Psychological assessment is an important part of both experimental research and clinical treatment. One of the greatest concerns when creating a psychological test is whether or not it actually measures what we think it is measuring. For example, a test might be designed to measure a stable personality trait, but instead measure transitory emotions generated by situational or environmental conditions. A valid test ensures that the results are an accurate reflection of the dimension undergoing assessment. So what does it mean for a test to have validity?

37. Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure. It is vital for a test to be valid in order for the results to be accurately applied and interpreted.

38. What is the difference between validity and reliability?

39. Reliability Vs. Validity It is important to note that just because a test has reliability it does not mean that it has validity. Validity refers to whether or not a test really measures what it claims to measure. Think of reliability as a measure of precision and validity as a measure of accuracy. In some cases, a test might be reliable, but not valid. For example, imagine that job applicants are taking a test to determine if they possess a particular personality trait. While the test might produce consistent results, it might not actually be measuring the trait that it purports to measure.

40. Advantages of surveys Surveys allow researchers to collect a large amount of data in a relatively short period of time. Surveys are less expensive than many other data collection techniques. Surveys can be created quickly and administered easily. Surveys can be used to collect information on a wide range of things, including personal facts, attitudes, past behaviours and opinions.

41. Disadvantages of surveys Poor survey construction and administration can undermine otherwise well-designed studies. The answer choices provided on a survey may not be an accurate reflection of how the participants truly feels. While random sampling is generally used to select participants, response rates can bias the results of a survey.

42. Hazan and Shaver 1987

43. Hazan and Shaver (1987) Early on, one of the primary limitations of attachment theory was that it had only really been studied in the context of young children. While studies of children are often instrumental in the field of developmental psychology, that field is ideally supposed to address the development of the entire human organism, including the stage of adulthood. In the 1980s, Cindy Hazan and Phillip Shaver were able to garner a lot of attention, then, when they turned attachment theory on adult relationships.

44. Aims Hazan & Shaver were interested in John Bowlby’s idea that an infant’s first attachment formed an internal working model - a template - for all future relationships. They wanted to see if there was a correlation between the infant’s attachment type and their future approach to romantic relationships.

45. PROCEDURE (METHOD): To test this Hazan & Shaver devised the ‘Love Quiz’ which consisted of 2 components:- A measure of attachment type - a simple adjective checklist of childhood relationships with parents and parents’ relationships with each other A love experience questionnaire which assessed individual’s beliefs about romantic love - eg: whether it lasted forever, whether it could be found easily, how much trust there was in a romantic relationship, etc The Love Quiz was printed in local newspaper the Rocky Mountain News and readers were asked to send in their responses. Hazan & Shaver analysed the first 620 replies sent in from people aged from 14 to 82. They classified the respondents’ according to Mary Ainsworth’s infant attachment types of secure, insecure- ambivalent and insecure-avoidant and looked for corresponding adult love styles -

46. Secure types described their love experiences as happy, friendly and trusting - emphasising being able to accept their partner regardless of any faults - with such relationships tending to be more enduring, with the initial passion reappearing from time to time and for some ‘romantic love’ never fading. They were happy depending on others and comfortable if others are dependent on them. They were happy to be close to others.

47. Insecure ambivalent types experienced love as involving obsession, a desire for reciprocation, emotional highs and lows, extreme sexual attraction and jealousy, and worry that their partners didn’t really love them or might abandon them. Their desire for intense closeness could frighten others away.

48. Insecure avoidant types typically feared intimacy, emotional highs and lows, and jealousy and believed they did not need love to be happy. They were uncomfortable being close to and/or depending on others.

49. On the moodle…… Please complete the “The love quiz”.