1. 1 Lecture 10: Distributed Databases – Replication and Fragmentation Advanced Databases CG096 Nick Rossiter

2. 2 Overview Last week: Saw difficulty in handling logical relationships between distributed information Potential solutions such as federated DDBMS This week: Look at an area where distributed databases are extensively used replication For backup for improving reliability of service such as for mirror site

3. 3 Strategies for Data Allocation 1 Centralised Single database, users distributed across network High communication costs All data access by users over network No local references Low reliability and low availability Failure of central site leads to no access to entire database system Storage costs No duplication so minimal Performance Likely to be unsatisfactory

4. 4 Strategies for Data Allocation 2 Fragmented Database distributed by fragments (disjoint views) Low communication costs Fragments located near their main users (if good design) Reliability and availability vary depending on failed site Failure of one part loses fragments situated there Other fragments continue to be available Storage costs No duplication so minimal Performance Likely to be satisfactory – better than centralised as less network traffic

5. 5 Strategies for Data Allocation 3 Complete Replication Database completely copied to each site Communication costs: High for update, low for read Need to propagate updates through system High reliability and high availability Can switch from failed site to another High Storage costs Complete duplication Performance High for reads Potentially poor for updates with propagation of updates

6. 6 Strategies for Data Allocation 4 Selective Replication Fragments are selectively replicated Communication costs: Low (if good design) Reliability and availability vary depending on failed site Failure of one part loses fragments situated there Other fragments continue to be available Storage costs Duplication of some fragments mean that it is not minimal but less than with complete replication Performance Likely to be satisfactory – better than centralised as less network traffic

7. 7 Fragmentation -- Further Details A fragment is a view on a table. Two main types Horizontal (classification by value) subset of tuples obtained by restrict operation (algebra) or WHERE clause (SQL) Vertical (classification by property) subset of columns obtained by project operation (algebra) or SELECT clause (SQL)

8. 8 Other Forms of Fragmentation Mixed (classification by both value and property) both horizontal and vertical fragmentation are used to obtain a single fragment Derived (association) an expression such as a join connects the fragments None The whole of a table appears without change in a view

9. 9 Why fragment? Most applications use only part of the data in a table To minimise network traffic, do not send more data than is strictly necessary to any site Data not required by an application is not visible to it, enhancing security

10. 10 Factors against fragmentation Performance may be affected adversely by the need for some applications to reconstruct fragments into larger units Integrity more difficult to control with dependencies possibly scattered across fragments

11. 11 Three rules for fragmentation R1 R1) Completeness If a table T is decomposed into fragments every value found in T must be found in at least one of the fragments Otherwise get loss of data So no loss of data as a whole in fragmentation

12. 12 Three rules for fragmentation R2 R2) Reconstruction It must be possible to reconstruct T from the fragments using a relational operation (typically a natural join) Otherwise decomposition into fragments is lossy Functional dependencies are preserved

13. 13 Three rules for fragmentation R3 R3) Disjointness A data item may not appear in more than one fragment unless it is a component of a primary key Avoids duplication and potential inconsistency although transactions should avoid latter Primary key duplication allows reconstructions to be made

14. 14 Strategy for Designing a Partially Replicated Distributed Database 1 Design global database using standard methodology Examine regional distribution of business. What data should be held by each part of business? Some data is only used locally (not exported, as in Federated DDBMS) Some data is mostly used locally

15. 15 Strategy for Designing a Partially Replicated Distributed Database 2 Transactions give many clues as to ideal placement of fragments a transaction will perform slowly if it requires data from different sites, unless the network connecting them is very fast a transaction performing much replication of updates will perform slowly if there is frequent contention for resources (locking) frequently used transactions should be optimised; infrequently used ones can be ignored

16. 16 Strategy for Designing a Partially Replicated Distributed Database 3 Decide on which relations are not to be fragmented. These will normally be replicated everywhere: as easy to update and to maintain integrity. Fragment remaining relations to suit: locality transactions

17. 17 Transparencies in DDBMS Transparency hides details at lower levels (often implementation ones) from user Four main types: Distribution Transaction Performance DBMS

18. 18 Distribution Transparency The DDB is perceived by the user as a single, logical unit even though the data is: distributed over several sites fragmented in various ways

19. 19 Significance of Full Distribution Transparency User does not need to know anything about the distribution techniques User addresses global schema in queries User will, however, not understand why some queries take longer than others Highest form of distribution transparency is termed fragmentation transparency

20. 20 Reduced forms of distribution transparency Location transparency user needs to know about fragmentation but not about placements at sites user does not need to know which replications exist Local mapping transparency the most limited transparency user needs to know about fragmentation and sites

21. 21 Transaction Transparency Ensures that all transactions maintain the DDB’s integrity and consistency Each transaction is divided into subtransactions one subtransaction for each site usually execute subtransactions in parallel gains in efficiency More complicated than in centralised system

22. 22 Forms of Transaction Transparency Concurrency Transparency all concurrent transactions (centralised and distributed) execute independently DDBMS must ensure that: each subtransaction is executed in the normal spirit of transactions (ACID) the subtransactions as a whole, forming one transaction, are executed ACID-style the mixture of subtransactions and whole transactions is executed ACID-style

23. 23 Transactions -- problems with replication Failure Transparency Users are unaware of problems such as that below encountered during transaction execution If say 6 copies of a data item (at 6 sites) need to be updated: problems if only 5 are currently reachable need to delay COMMIT until all sites processed otherwise inconsistent data unless allow delayed asynchronous update

24. 24 Performance transparency Requires: the DDBMS to determine the most cost- effective way to handle a request which fragment to use (if replicated) which copy of a fragment to use which site to use avoidance of any performance degradation compared with a centralised system

25. 25 DBMS transparency Hides knowledge of which DBMS is being used The most difficult transparency of all particularly with heterogeneous models See problems highlighted in lecture 9: Global Schema Integration Federated Databases Multidatabase Languages

26. 26 Replication Servers Copying and maintenance of data on multiple servers Replication -- the process of generating and reproducing multiple copies of data at one or more sites Servers – provides the file resources – the distributed database

27. 27 Benefits of Replication Increased reliability Better data availability Potential for better performance (with good design) Warm stand-by As in mirror site, shadowing actions of main site and cutting in if main site crashes

28. 28 Timing of Replication Synchronous Immediate according to some common signal such as time Ideal as ensures immediate consistency Assumes availability of all sites Asynchronous Independently with delays ranging from a few seconds to several days Immediate consistency is not achieved More flexible as at any one time not all sites need to be available

29. 29 Types of data replicated Across heterogeneous data models Mapping required (hard) Object replication More varied than just base data Also auxiliary structures such as indexes Stored procedures and functions Scalability No volume restrictions

30. 30 Replication administration Subscription mechanism Allows a permitted user to subscribe to replicated data/objects Initialisation mechanism Allows for the initialisation of a target replication

31. 31 Ownership of Replicated Data 1 Master/Slave Master site Primary owner of replicated data Sole right to change data Publish and subscribe procedure Asynchronous replication as slave sites receive copies of the data Slave site Receive read-only data from master site Slaves can be used as mobile clients

32. 32 Ownership of Replicated Data 2 Workflow Ownership Flexible master designation Dynamic ownership model Right to update data moves along the chain of command (replicating sites) For example, as order is processed the master right moves to each department in turn

33. 33 Ownership of Replicated Data 3 Update-anywhere Peer-to-peer model Multiple sites can update data Conflict resolution required More complex implementation

34. 34 Distribution and Replication in Oracle 9i Materialised views Formerly known as snapshots Views are updated by Refresh mechanism Variable frequency to suit application Fast – based on identified changes Complete – replaces existing data Force – tries Fast – if not possible – does Complete

35. 35 Oracle 9i transparency Does not support Fragmentation transparency Supports Site (location) transparency

36. 36 Summary of Distributed DBMS An area under keen development as improves Availability of data Overall reliability of system Performance (with good design) However, disadvantages remain: Implementation can be complex (expensive) Heterogeneity in models is poorly handled Use for replicating data is main application today