1. The Information Processing Approach Chapter 8 By Eva Tantri Mahastri 69080083

2. Outline The Nature of the Information Processing Approach Attention Memory Expertise Metacognition

3. The Nature of Information Approach Information Memory Thinking Cognitive Resources: Capacity and Speed Mental processes Output Strategy Construction Automaticity Application Input

4. Attention: the focusing of mental processes Information Thinking Output Input Application Memory

5. Attention: the focusing of mental processes Selective : focus on relevant experiences ignore irrelevant experiences Divided : Concentration on more than one activity at a time (multitasking) Distraction Sustained/Vigilance : Maintaining attention over an extended period Executive : Involve action, planning, allocating attention to goals, error detection and compensation, monitoring progress on tasks and dealing with novel or difficult circumstances. (for complex task) Affected by: age, socially advantages, cognitive control development, stimuli

6. Best practices: Strategies for helping students paying attention Encourage students to pay close attention and minimize distraction Use cues or gestures to signal that something is important Help students generate their own cue or catch phrase for when they need to pay attention Make learning interesting Use media and technology effectively as part of your effort to vary the pace of the classroom Focus on active learning to make learning enjoyable.

7. Memory: the retention of information over time InformationMemoryThinking Output Input Application

8. Processing information in memory ENCODINGSTORAGERETRIEVAL Getting information into memory Retaining information overtime Taking information out of storage Informasi masuk Informasi terulang & tersimpan Informasi digunakan

9. ENCODING Getting information into memory REHEARSAL: The conscious repetition of information over time to increase the length of time information stays in memory DEEP PROCESSING: Process information semantically, in terms of its meaning. ELABORATION: Extensiveness of information processing involved in encoding (ex. Through example) CONSTRUCTING IMAGES: Constructing image of something. ORGANIZATION: EX. Chunking: grouping or packing information into higher order units that can be remembered as single unit.

10. Sample of ORGANIZING Mention names of month! Mention names of month in alphabetical order! It seems like we remember better when we order it in natural order

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12. SENSORY MEMORY: Holds information from the world in its original form for only an instant. SHORT TERM MEMORYSHORT TERM MEMORY: A limited-capacity memory system in which information is retained for as long as 30 seconds, unless it is rehearsed, in which case it can be retained longer. LONG TERM MEMORY: Extensiveness of information processing involved in encoding (ex. Through example) STORAGE Retaining information overtime

13. Working Memory (Baddeley) Visuospatial working memory Phonological loop Long-term memory Input via sensory memory Central Executive

14. Theory of Memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin) Sensory memory Short-term memory Long-term memory Sensory Input Attention Retrieval Storage Rehearsal

15. Long-term Memory LONG-TERM MEMORY Declarative Memory (explicit) Episodic memory Semantic Memory Procedural Memory (implicit)

16. RETRIEVAL:. FORGETTING: RETRIEVAL Taking information out of storage

17. Strategies for Helping Students Improve their memory: Motivate children to remember material by understanding it rather than by memorizing it Assist students in organizing what they put into their memory Teach mnemonic strategies: –Method of loci (develop images) –Rhymes (ex. Alphabet song) –Acronyms (creating words from first letters) –Keyword methods (use of mental imagery)

18. Expertise Expert: demonstrate especially impressive memory in their areas of expertise.

19. Expertise and Learning Understanding behavior and mental processes of experts can give us insights into how to guide students in becoming more effective learners.

20. Characteristics of experts Detecting features and meaningful patterns of information Accumulating more content knowledge and organizing it in a manner that shows an understanding of the topic Retrieving important aspects of knowledge with little effort Adapting an approach to new situations Using effective strategies

21. Strategies used by experts: Spreading out and consolidating Learning (review, take time) Asking themselves questions (helps association) Taking good notes (summarizing, outlining, using concept maps) Using study system (preview, question, read, reflect, recite, review)

22. How to be expert Practice and Motivation Talent

23. Expertise and Teaching Becoming an expert in one area does not mean expert in making others learn and get something. Expert teachers are good at monitoring students’ learning and assessing students’ progress.

24. Metacognition Metacognition is defined as "cognition about cognition", or "knowing about knowing."cognition Metacognition refers to one’s knowledge concerning one’s own cognitive processes or anything related to them

25. Deanna Kuhn: metacognition should be a stronger focus of effort to help children become better critical thinkers, especially at the middle school and high school levels. –First order cognitive skill: know about the world –Second order cognitive skill: knowing about one’s own (and other’s) knowing.

26. Developmental Changes of Meta memory Beginning of elementary LOW HIGHER Age of 11-12 and up

27. Theory of Mind 2-3 years Perception Emotions Desires 4-5 years True False Middle & late childhood Interpretation Adolescence Manage and monitor resources to meet demands

28. The good Information Processing Model (Pressley, Borkowski, Schneider) Children are taught to use a particular strategy for learning specific knowledge. Children see demonstration of strategies usage in different situation Children recognize the general benefits of using strategies.

29. Best Practices for helping students use strategies: Recognize that strategies are a key aspect of solving problems. Model effective strategies for students Give students many opportunities to practice the strategies. Encourage students to monitor the effectiveness of their new strategy in comparison to the effectiveness of old strategies. Understand that students need to be motivated to use the strategies Encourage children to use multiple strategies. Read more about strategy instruction. Ask questions that help to guide students’ thinking in various content areas. Recognize that low achieving students and students with disabilities of ten need more support and time to become affective in independently using strategies. Read about strategy instruction online.