1. An Overview of Metacognition by Human Systems Jim Van Overschelde University of Maryland at College Park

2. Outline What is metacognition? Cognitive developments supporting metacognition Study of metacognitions Accuracy of metacognitions

3. What is Metacognition? Cognitions about cognitions Two main research areas: Online processes –Monitoring –Control Knowledge of prior metacognitions

4. Object-level Meta-level Flow of Information Adapted from Nelson, 1996 Hierarchical Structure ControlMonitoring

5. Meta-Level Models the object level(s) –Attended information (monitoring) –Interpretation of attended information – self relevance –Goals or desires –Prior experience and knowledge –Expectations or assumptions –Model of future needs Decisions for what and how to control object level is based on the model –Inventory of learning and/or behavioral strategies –Expectations/knowledge about how strategies will affect object level

6. Control-Level Cognitive strategies –Learning (encoding, retrieval, maintenance) –Search (memory, environment) –Termination of search –Algorithms & heuristics Problem solving Decision making Judgments (prediction, postdiction) Behavioral strategies

7. Cognitive Developments Supporting Metacognition Attentional control –Limited –Selective –Leads to processing of selected information Memory (LTM and WM) –Affected by cues and recency, is imperfect –Organizational & distinctive processing Goal driven Develop and use strategies Conceptual self

8. Birth to 12 mo Neonates –Selectively attend to eyes and faces –Basic, but functional memory system 5 to 8 wks –Imitate some adult facial and head movements (basic control) and retained for 24 hrs 1 to 6 mo –Memory for complex associations retained for 3-6 mo –Perceive humans as different than “objects” Expect certain behaviors from each –Will follow adult gaze within field of vision (joint attention) 6 to 12 mo –Can follow adult gaze – accurately triangulate –Realize people relate to objects psychologically –Can do 24-hr deferred imitation

9. 12 to 18 mo Expect people to reach for objects to which they show positive regard Signs of rudimentary conceptual self (self as different) –“dog” to “Me see dog” Will give a food to experimenter who shows positive response, even when child doesn’t like the food –At 14 mo, don’t show this

10. 18 to 24 mo Intact conceptual self, mirror self recognition, beginning of autobiographical memories –Facilitates organizational and distinctive processing of experiences Can take non-egocentric visual perspective Can pretend (e.g., banana as a phone) –Greater conceptual understanding of objects Will attempt to manipulate other’s emotions –Understand people have emotional states –Comfort and tease

11. 2 to 4 Years 2 to 3 yrs –Understand that attention is selective, limited, varies in intensity, and must attend to process information 3 to 4 yrs –Can describe internal emotional states Use emotional language appropriately –Understand behavior is often goal driven –Understand intention-mistake and plan-outcome distinctions –Understand mental processes not directly related to physical processes

12. 4 to 6 Years Understand behavior is guided by desires and beliefs –These can be different from their own Understand that others’ preexisting biases and expectations influence interpretations Appearance vs. reality –e.g., Sponge in shape of rock

13. 6 to Adulthood Learn many new strategies Predictive accuracy increases –Learn which strategies to use in particular situations Metacognitive knowledge increases Processes become more automatic –Less amenable to control –Frees resources for monitoring other processes Auto-processes are monitored less often/well

14. Studies of Metacognition Meta-level –Information monitored –Model created –Judgments Control-level –Strategies

15. AcquisitionRetentionRetrieval MONITORINGMONITORING CONTROLCONTROL Ease-of-learning Judgment-of-learning Feeling-of-KnowingConfidence Selection of Strategy Allocation of time Termination of study Selection of Search strategy Termination of search In advance of learning On-going learning Maintenance of Knowledge Self-directed Search Output of Response From Metcalfe & Shimamura, 1994

16. Predictions Monitoring Judgment of learning (JOL) Feeling of knowing (FOK) Control Selection of strategy Allocation of study time Termination of memory search

17. JOLs Prediction about future test performance –Compare objective performance with subject estimate Based on current state of “mind” –Assumptions about forgetting –Many other possible cues Study JOL Test t0t0 t2t2 t1t1

18. Common Findings Relative accuracy if t 1 – t 0 < 30 s –JOL accuracy low, but above chance If t 1 – t 0 > 30 s –JOL accuracy high and almost perfect Value of t 2 – t 1

19. Explaining the Differences Immediate JOLs –All items are recallable –People are not good at predicting which items will fall below a recall “threshold” Delayed JOLs –Some items recallable, some not –Non-recalled items won’t spontaneously recover –Recalled items are unlikely to be forgotten if t 2 – t 1 is short (< 10 min)

20. Feeling of Knowing FOK –Performed on non-recalled items –Correlates with recognition performance FOKs generated rapidly –Exist prior to answer being recalled Tip-of-the-tongue –First letter, number of syllables

21. Termination of Search FOK correlates with memory search time –Stronger FOKs -> longer search Rapid termination if “unknown” answer If tired or unmotivated, will terminate search sooner

22. Study Strategy Rote rehearsal vs. elaborative encoding –Children don’t differentiate unless tested –Adults differentiate even without testing Adults have more strategies –Self-referential –Organization –Distinctive Experts have specialized strategies –Recoding, knowledge structures

23. Allocation of Study Time Younger children will terminate study before all items learned –Depending on material, adults do too Adults given control over study times –Will study harder items (low JOL) more 11 yr olds given control –Lowest readers - will study easier and harder stories equally –Highest readers – study harder stories more

24. Making Judgments Cue based ( e.g., Koriat, 1997 ) –Intrinsic Inherent to the item (knowledge about item) –Frequency of experience –Imageability –Extrinsic Condition of learning (# of presentations) Encoding strategy used –Mnemonic Internal state information –Perceptual and retrieval fluency Knowledge of similar prior situations

25. Metacognitive Accuracy Depends on: Current state –Attended information affects model of object- level Future state –Model future needs –State change between t 2 and t 1 Selection of strategy

26. Sources of Inaccuracy Prior experience or lack there of AutomaticityInterpretations Desire to protect cognitive self GoalsExpectationsRepresentativeness/stereotypicalRecencyAnchoring

27. Experts Accurate at modeling current state –Attending to appropriate information –Adding information from prior knowledge –Selection and use of strategies Accurate predictions in well-defined domains Not overly accurate at predicting future performance in ill-defined domains

28. Summary Accurate metacognitive performance Monitoring and model current state –Attend to correct information given goals –Minimize distortions from interpretation –Using existing knowledge to augment model when lacking needed information –Prediction of future needs Control –Select and use strategies appropriately Keep the monitoring-control cycle going

29. General References Howe, M. L. (2003). Memories from the cradle. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12, 62-65. Kuhn, D. (2000). Metacognitive development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9, 178-181. Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34, 906-911. Flavell, J. H. (1999). Cognitive development: Children’s knowledge about the mind. Annual Review of Psychology, 50, 21-45. Nelson, T. O. (1994). Metacognition. Encyclopedia of Human Behavior, vol. 3., 187-190. Nelson, T. O. (1996). Consciousness and Metacognition. American Psychologist, 51, 102-116. Nelson, T. O. & Narens, L. (1994). Why investigate metacognition? In Metacognition: Knowing about Knowing (J. Metcalfe & A. P. Shimamura, Eds.). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.