2. GENETIC MARKERS IN PLANT BREEDING

3. Marker Gene of known function and location Gene that allows studying the inheritance of that gene Genetic information resides in the genome Genetic Marker Any phenotypic difference controlled by genes, that can be used for studying recombination processes or selection of a more or less closely associated target gene Anything in the genome that is variable and can be used to compare individuals Detectable allelic variation on a chromosome can be a phenotype, can also be a unique detectable sequence of DNA

4. Genetic Marker Morphological marker Molecular marker 1. Protein marker 2. DNA marker

5. Genetic marker characteristics Characteristics Morphological markers Protein markers RFLP markers RAPD markers SSR markers Number of loci LimitedLimited Almost unlimited UnlimitedHigh InheritanceDominantCodominantCodominantDominantCodominant Positive features Visible Easy to detect Utilized before the latest technologies were available Quick assays with many markers Well distributed within the genome, many polymorphism Negative features Possibly negative linkage to other characters Possibly tissue specific Radioactivity requirements, rather expensive High basic investment Long development of the markers, expensive

6. Polymorphism -Parent 1 : one band -Parent 2 : a smaller band -Offspring 1 : heterozygote = both bands -Offspring 2 : homozygote parent 1 Polymorphism Parent 1 : one band -Parent 2 : no band -Offspring 1 : homozygote parent 1 -Offspring 2 : ???? P 2 P 1 O 2 O 1 Gel configuration Co-dominant marker P 2 Gel configuration P 1 O 1 O 2 Dominant marker

7. Morphological Marker hulled naked Black white Phenotypic markers Naked eye marker

8. Readily detectable sequence of protein or DNA that are closely linked to a gene locus and/or a morphological or other characters of a plant Readily detectable sequence of protein or DNA whose inheritance can be monitored and associated with the trait inheritance independently from the environment Molecular Markers Types: a) protein polymorphisms b) DNA polymorphisms

9. Molecular markers Resolutionpower Resolution power allozymes (protein-electrophoresis) RAPD (random amplified polymorphic DNA) AFLP (Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism) Multi-locus fingerprints (RFLP) Microsatellites (SSRs) Sequencing (SNPs)

10. Allozymes: Isoenzymes of protein nature whose synthesis is usually controlled by codominant alleles and inherited by monogenic ratios Isozymes: A species of enzyme that exists into two or more structural forms which are easily identified by their activities Proteins Markers

11. DNA Gene A Gene B AACCTGAAAAGTTACCCTTTAAAGGCTTAAGGAA AAAGGGTTTAACCAAGGAATTCCATCGGGAATTCCG MFG 1 ccacgcgtcc gtgaggactt gcaagcgccg cggatggtgg gctctgtggc tgggaacatg 61 ctgctgcgag ccgcttggag gcgggcgtcg ttggcggcta cctccttggc cctgggaagg 121 tcctcggtgc ccacccgggg actgcgcctg cgcgtgtaga tcatggcccc cattcgcctg 181 ttcactcaga ggcagaggca gtgctgcgac ctctctacat ggacgtacag gccaccactc 241 ctctggatcc cagagtgctt gatgccatgc tcccatacct tgtcaactac tatgggaacc 301 ctcattctcg gactcatgca tatggctggg agagcgaggc agccatggaa cgtgctcgcc 361 agcaagtagc atctctgatt ggagctgatc ctcgggagat cattttcact agtggagcta 421 ctgagtccaa caacatagca attaaggtag gaggagggat ggggatgttg tgtggccgac 481 agttgtgagg ggttgtggga agatggaagc cagaagcaaa aaagagggaa cctgacacta 541 tttctggctt cttgggttta gcgattagtg cccctctctc atttgaactc aactacccat 601 gtctccctag ttctttctct gcctttaaaa aaaaatgtgt ggaggacagc tttgtggag MFG DNA Marker M1M1 M2M2 Readily detectable sequence of DNA whose inheritance can be monitored and associated with the trait inheritance

12. Hybridization based markers Examine differences in size of specific DNA restriction fragments Usually performed on total cellular genome Require pure, high molecular weight DNA and probe DNA Marker 1.Hybridization molecular based markers 2.PCR molecular based markers

13. DNA/DNA Hybridization Denaturation Elevated temperature Known DNA sequence Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism

14. RFLP techniques

15. 362 6 12435 45 1 MFG RFLP Polymorphisms interpretation

16. Advantages and disadvantages Advantages –Reproducible –Co-dominant –Simple Disadvantages –Time consuming –Expensive –Use of radioactive probes

17. Polymerase Chain Reaction Powerful technique for amplifying DNA Amplified DNA are then separated by gel electrophoresis

18. PCR Based markers Sequencing (SNPs) Microsatellites (SSR) AFLP (Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism) RAPD (random amplified polymorphic DNA)

19. RAPD Markers DNA markers which developed by amplifying random sequence of specific markers through the used of random primers

20. RAPD Disadvantages: Dominant markers Reproducibility problems Advantages: Amplifies anonymous stretches of DNA using arbitrary primers Fast and easy method for detecting polymorphisms

21. RAPD Markers RAPD markers need to be converted to stable PCR markers. The polymorphic RAPD marker band is isolated from the gel It is used a template and re-PCRed The new PCR product is cloned and sequenced Once the sequence is determined, new longer and specific primers can be designed

22. RAPD Polymorphisms among landraces of sorghum M Sequences of 10- mer RAPD primers NameSequence OP A085’ –GTGACGTAGG- 3’ OP A155’ –TTCCGAACCC- 3’ OP A 175’ –GACCGCTTGT- 3’ OP A195’ –CAAACGTCGG- 3’ OP D025’ –GGACCCAACC- 3’ RAPD gel configuration

23. AFLP Markers Most complex of marker technologies Most complex of marker technologies Involves cleavage of DNA with two different enzymes Involves cleavage of DNA with two different enzymes Involves ligation of specific linker pairs to the digested DNA Involves ligation of specific linker pairs to the digested DNA Subsets of the DNA are then amplified by PCR Subsets of the DNA are then amplified by PCR The PCR products are then separated on acrylamide gel The PCR products are then separated on acrylamide gel 128 linker combinations are readily available 128 linker combinations are readily available Therefore 128 subsets can be amplified Therefore 128 subsets can be amplified Patented technology Patented technology

27. AFLP Markers Technically demanding Reliable and stable Moderate cost Need to use different kits adapted to the size of the genome being analyzed. Like RAPD markers need to be converted to quick and easy PCR based marker

28. SSR (Simple sequence repeat) DNA markers which developed by amplifying microsatellite in the genome SequencePrimer ACTGTCGACACACACACACACGCTAGCT(AC) 7 TGACAGCTGTGTGTGTGTGTGCGATCGA ACTGTCGACACACACACACACACGCTAGCT(AC) 8 TGACAGCTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGCGATCGA ACTGTCGACACACACACACACACACACGCTAGCT(AC) 10 TGACAGCTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGCGATCGA ACTGTCGACACACACACACACACACACACACGCTAGCT(AC) 12 TGACAGCTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGTGCGATCGA

29. AATCCGGACTAGCTTCTTCTTCTTCTTCTTTAGCGAATTAGG P1P1 AAGGTTATTTCTTCTTCTTCTTCTTCTTCTTCTTAGGCTAGGCG P2P2 P1P1 P2P2 SSR polymorphisms Gel configuration

30. SNPs (Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms) Any two unrelated individuals differ by one base pair every 1,000 or so, referred to as SNPs. Many SNPs have no effect on cell function and therefore can be used as molecular markers. Hybridization using fluorescent dyes SNPs on a DNA strand DNA markers which their polymorphism can be determined by single nucleotide difference

31. DNA sequencing Sequencing gel Sequencer Sequencing graph

32. Polymorphic Co-dominant inheritance Occurs throughout the genome Reproducible Easy, fast and cheap to detect Selectivity neutral High resolution with large number of samples Desirable properties

33. Use of Molecular Markers Clonal identity, Family structure, Population structure, Phylogeny (Genetic Diversity) Mapping Parental analysis, Gene flow, Hybridisation

34. Genetic Diversity Define appropriate geographical scales for monitoring and management (epidemology) Establish gene flow mechanism Identify the origin of individual (mutation detection) Monitor the effect of management practices Manage small number of individual in ex situ collection Establish of identity in cultivar and clones (fingerprint) Paternity analysis and forensic

35. Genetic Diversity

36. early selection of the good allele seeds, plantlets fingerprints

37. Mapping The determination of the position and relative distances of gene on chromosome by means of their linkage   Genetic map A linear arrangement of genes or genetic markers obtained based on recombination   Physical map A linear order of genes or DNA fragments

38. Physical Mapping It contains ordered overlapping cloned DNA fragment The cloned DNA fragments are usually obtained using restriction enzyme digestion

39. Molecular markers (especially RFLPs and SSRs) can be used to produce genetic maps because they represent an almost unlimited number of alleles that can be followed in progeny of crosses. R r Tt or Chromosomes with morphological marker alleles RFLP1a RFLP2a RFLP4a RFLP3a SSR1a SSR2a RFLP1b RFLP2b RFLP4b RFLP3b SSR1b SSR2b Chromosomes with molecular marker alleles Genetic Maps

40. QTL Mapping A locus or DNA segment that carries more genes coding for an agronomic or other traits Individual loci responsible for quantitative genetic variation Region in the genome containing factors influencing a quantitative trait Region identified by statistical association QTL (Quantitative Trait Loci) A set of procedures for detecting genes controlling quantitative traits (QTL) and estimating their genetics effects and location Localizing and determining a segment of DNA that regulate quantitative traits Detecting and locating gene having an effect on a quantitative traits  To assist selection Marker Assisted Selection

41. Single gene trait: seed shape Multigenic trait; ex: plant growth =Quantitative Trait Loci Types of traits

42. Linkage groups

43. Developing a Marker Best marker is DNA sequence responsible for phenotype i.e. gene If you know the gene responsible and has been isolated, compare sequence of wild-type and mutant DNA Develop specific primers to gene that will distinguish the two forms

44. Developing a Marker If gene is unknown, screen contrasting populations Use populations rather than individuals Need to “blend” genetic differences between individual other than trait of interest

45. Developing Markers Cross individual differing in trait you wish to develop a marker Collect progeny and self or polycross the progeny Collect and select the F2 generation for the trait you are interested in Select 5 - 10 individuals in the F2 showing each trait

46. Developing Markers Extract DNA from selected F2s Pool equal amounts of DNA from each individual into two samples - one for each trait Screen pooled or “bulked” DNA with what method of marker method you wish to use Conduct linkage analysis to develop QTL Marker Conduct linkage analysis to develop QTL Marker Other methods to develop population for markers exist but are more expensive and slower to develop → Near Isogenic Lines, Recombinant Inbreeds, Single Seed Decent