1. Planning, Writing, and Completing Oral Presentations

2. The Three-Step Process
Flow of the Message
Planning 1
Writing 2
Completing 3
The chances are that you will have to deliver a number of oral presentations throughout your career. You may not speak before large audiences of employees or the media, but you'll certainly be expected to present ideas to your colleagues, make sales presentations to potential customers, or engage in other kinds of spoken communication.
Regardless of your job or the purpose of your presentation, you will be more effective if you adopt an oral presentation process that follows three steps:
1. Plan your presentation.
2. Write your presentation.
3. Complete your presentation.
Substance of the Message

3. Planning Speeches and Presentations
Determine
the Purpose
Analyze
the Audience
Planning oral presentations is much like planning any other business message: It requires analyzing your purpose and your audience, investigating necessary information, and adapting your message to the occasion and your audience so that you can establish a good relationship.
However, because presentations are delivered orally under relatively public circumstances, they require a few special communication techniques. For one thing, a presentation is a one-time event; your audience cannot leaf back through printed pages to review something you said earlier. You must make sure that audience members will hear what you say and remember it. To do so, you must capture their attention immediately and keep them interested. Otherwise, you'll lose them, and chances are you won't get them back. So when you prepare your presentation, begin by defining your purpose clearly and thinking of ways to engage your audience.
Gather
Information
Adapt the
Message

4. Common Purposes of Business Presentations
Audience Members
Inform
Persuade
Presentation
Content
Presentation
Style
Oral presentations can be categorized according to their purpose. The four basic reasons for giving a presentation are to inform, to persuade, to motivate, and to entertain.
Most of your presentations or speeches will be informative, requiring a straightforward statement of the facts. If you’re involved in a marketing or sales position, however, you’ll probably be writing and delivering quite a few persuasive presentations and speeches. Motivational speeches tend to be more specialized, so many companies bring in outside professional speakers to handle this type of presentation. Entertainment speeches are perhaps the rarest in the business world; they are usually limited to after-dinner speeches and to speeches at conventions or retreats.
Whatever your purpose, your speech will be more effective if you keep your audience interested in your message. To do so, you must understand who your audience members are and what they need.
Motivate
Entertain

5. Writing Oral Presentations
Audience
Organizing
the Message
Creating the
Introduction
Purpose
Purpose
Composing
the Body
Writing the
Conclusion
You may not ever actually write out a presentation word for word. But that doesn't mean that developing its content will be any easier or quicker than preparing a written document. Speaking intelligently about a topic may actually involve more work and more time than preparing a written document about the same topic.
Writing effective oral presentations involves four phases: organizing the message, creating the introduction, composing the body, and writing the conclusion.
Audience

6. Organizing the Message
Define the Main Idea
Limit the Scope
Prepare the Outline
Choose the Style
Audience
Purpose
Message
Choose the Approach
You should organize an oral message just as you would organize a written message, by focusing on your audience as you define your main idea, limit your scope, choose your approach, prepare your outline, and decide on the most effective style for your presentation.
What is the one message you want audience members to walk away with? Look for a one-sentence generalization that links your subject and purpose to your audience's frame of reference, much as an advertising slogan points out how a product can benefit consumers.
Effective presentations not only focus on the audience’s needs but also tailor the material to the time allowed, which is often strictly regulated.
Use the direct approach if the subject involves routine information or good news; use the indirect approach if the subject involves bad news or persuasion.
A carefully prepared outline can be more than just the starting point for composing a speech or presentation. It will help you stay on task. Use it to make sure your message accomplishes its purpose. Your outline will help you keep your presentation both audience centered and within the allotted time.
Choose your style to fit the occasion. Your audience's size, your subject, your purpose, your budget, and the time available for preparation all influence your style.

7. Oral Presentations Opportunities Challenges On-the-Spot Feedback
Immediate
Modification
Nonverbal
Reinforcement
Maintaining
Control
Guiding the
Audience
Shifting
Topics
Developing a major presentation is much like writing a formal report, except that you need to adjust your technique to an oral channel. Speaking before a group offers certain opportunities:
Immediate audience feedback. You can transmit information, but you can also receive audience feedback without delay.
Immediate modification to suit audience needs. You can adjust both the content and the delivery of your message as you go along to clarify or to be more compelling.
Nonverbal reinforcement. You also have the opportunity to use nonverbal cues to express your meaning and emphasize what’s important.
Using an oral communication channel presents you with the some challenges:
Maintaining control. The more you expect to interact with your audience, the less control you'll have of the situation.
Helping your audience follow what you’re saying. Since listeners cannot refer back and forth to what has been or will be said, you must work harder to clarify where you’re going and help them stay on track.
Shifting topics smoothly. Halfway through your presentation, a comment from someone in the audience might force you to shift topics. If you anticipate such shifts, you can prepare for them as you compose your presentation.

8. Introducing the Message
Arouse
Interest
Build
Credibility
Preview the
Presentation
A good introduction arouses the audience’s interest in your topic, establishes your credibility, and prepares the audience for what will follow.
Arouse audience interest. Start by capturing the audience’s attention. If you are presenting to a small group, involve the audience, encouraging comments from listeners. When speaking to a large group, responding to comments can interrupt the flow of information, weaken your argument, and reduce your control of the situation. Therefore, it’s best to ask people to hold questions until you’re finished--be sure to allow ample time after your remarks.
Build your credibility. Establish your credentials quickly—people will decide about you within a few minutes. Building credibility is easy for a familiar, open-minded audience. For strangers (especially skeptical ones), try letting someone else introduce you. If introducing yourself, keep your comments simple, and don't be afraid to mention your accomplishments.
Previewing your presentation. Help your audience understand the structure and contents of your message. Give them cues to figure out how the main points of the message fit together. Summarize the main idea, identify the supporting points, and indicate the order in which you’ll develop them. Establish the framework so that your audience will understand how the facts and figures are related to your main idea as you move into the body of your presentation.

9. Composing the Message Limit the Main Points Connect the Ideas Engage
the Audience
Connect the
Ideas
The bulk of your speech or presentation is devoted to a discussion of the three or four main points in your outline. Use the same organizational patterns you'd use in a letter, memo, or report, but keep things simple.
An oral presentation must rely on words to link various parts and ideas. For small links between sentences and paragraphs, use one or two transitional words: therefore, because, in addition, in contrast, moreover, for example, consequently, nevertheless, or finally. To link major sections of a presentation, use complete sentences or paragraphs, such as "Now that we've reviewed the problem, let's take a look at some solutions." Every time you shift topics, be sure to stress the connection between ideas. Summarize what's been said, and then preview what's to come. The longer your presentation, the more important your transitions become.
You also have to hold your audience's attention. Here are a few helpful tips for engaging an audience:
Relate your subject to your audience's needs.
Anticipate your audience’s questions.
Use clear, vivid language.
Explain the relationship between your subject and familiar ideas.
Ask opinions or pause occasionally for questions or comments.

10. Concluding the Message
Restate the
Main Points
Describe the
Next Steps
End on a
Strong Note
The close of a speech or presentation is almost as important as the beginning because audience attention peaks at this point. Plan to devote about 10 percent of your total time to the ending. When developing your conclusion, begin by telling listeners that you're about to finish so that they'll make one final effort to listen intently.
Restating the Main Points. Once you've decided how to announce your close, plan on repeating your main idea. Be sure to emphasize what you want your audience to do or think, and state the key motivating factor. Finally, reinforce your theme by repeating the three or four main supporting points.
Describe the Next Steps. Some presentations require the audience to reach a decision or to agree to take specific action. If you expect any action to occur as a result of your speech, you must explain who is responsible for doing what. Alert people to potential difficulties or pitfalls.
End on a Strong Note. Make sure that your final remarks are encouraging and memorable. Conclude with a quote, a call to action, or some encouraging words. Your task is to leave the audience with a feeling of completeness. Do not introduce new ideas or to alter the mood of the presentation.

11. Completing Speeches and Presentations
Evaluate
the Message
Develop
Visual Aids
Master the
Delivery
To complete your oral presentation, evaluate the content of your message and edit your remarks for clarity and conciseness—as you would for any business message. Develop any visual aids for your presentation, and coordinate them with your delivery. Finally, master the art of delivery through practice and preparation, by building your confidence, and by polishing the way you present visuals and handle of questions.

12. Using Visual Aids Clarify Main Points Improve Learning Add Variety
Audience
Clarify
Main Points
Improve
Learning
Add
Variety
Create
Interest
Setting
Content
Visual aids can improve the quality and impact of your oral presentation by creating interest, illustrating points that are difficult to explain in words alone, adding variety, and increasing the audience’s ability to absorb and remember information.
As a speaker, you’ll find that visual aids can help you remember the details of the message and improve your professional image. Speakers who use visuals generally appear better prepared and more knowledgeable than speakers who do not use visuals aids.
Today’s speakers can select from a variety of visual aids to enhance oral presentations. Among the most popular types of visual aids are overhead transparencies, electronic presentations, chalkboards and whiteboards, flip charts, and 35-millimeter slides (see the next slide).
Purpose

13. Types of Visual Aids Overhead Transparencies Electronic Presentations
Chalkboards/Whiteboards
Flip Charts
35-Millimeter Slides
Used as a standard visual aid for decades, an overhead transparency is a piece of clear plastic with writing or some other image on it. Transparencies are shown by placing them on an overhead projector that projects the image or writing on a screen.
An electronic presentation consists of a series of slides composed using popular computer software such as Microsoft PowerPoint.The software allows you to incorporate photos, sound, video, graphics, animation, and other movement into the slides, enabling you to capture and engage your audience like no other visual aid.
Chalkboards and whiteboards are effective tools for recording points made during small-group brainstorming sessions. Because these visual aids are produced on the spot, they offer flexibility. However, they're too informal for some situations.
Flip charts are large sheets of paper attached at the top like a tablet. These charts can be propped on an easel so that you can flip the pages as you speak, with each chart illustrating or clarifying a point.
The content of 35-millimeter slides may be text, graphics, or pictures. If you're trying to create a polished, professional atmosphere, you might find this approach worthwhile, particularly if you'll be addressing a crowd and don't mind speaking in a darkened room.

14. Types of Visual Aids Product Samples Scale Models Audiotapes
Film Strips and Movies
Television and Videotapes
In addition to overhead transparencies, electronic presentations, chalkboards and whiteboards, flip charts, and 35-millimeter slides, the following visual aids can enhance a presentation:
In technical or scientific presentations, a sample of a product or material allows the audience to experience your subject directly.
Models built to scale are convenient representations of an object.
Audiotapes are often used to supplement a slide show or to present a precisely worded and timed message.
Filmstrips and movies can capture the audience's attention with color and movement.
Television and videotapes are good for showing demonstrations, interviews, and other events.
In addition, filmstrips, movies, television, and videotapes can be used as stand-alone vehicles (independent of a speaker) to communicate with dispersed audiences at various times.

15. Advantages of Transparencies
Inexpensive
Easy to Use
Simple to Create
Many business people prefer to use overhead transparencies in oral presentations for a number of reasons. They are inexpensive, easy to create, and simple to use.
You can prepare high-quality overheads using a computer and a high-resolution color inkjet or laser printer. Moreover, they require little extra equipment to show. Most conference rooms or classrooms have overhead projectors and a table large enough to stack transparencies. And, because transparency images can be projected in full daylight, speakers can maintain eye contact with the audience. They can also use special markers to write on transparencies as they present information.

16. Disadvantages of Transparencies
Lack of Flexibility
Fragile Format
Overhead Projectors
In spite of these advantages, transparencies have a number of drawbacks. First, because they are in a permanent printed format, they must be replaced if their content changes. Each time you add or remove an overhead from the sequence, you must manually renumber the batch.
Transparencies are fragile: they chip, flake, scratch, and tear easily. You can protect transparencies with cardboard or plastic frames or with transparent sleeves, but these protectors are costly and are bulky to store or transport.
Overhead projectors can be noisy and a challenge to talk over. Transparencies must be aligned carefully on the overhead projector (one at a time). This requirement limits the presenter’s ability to move freely about the room.

17. Electronic Presentations
Advantages
Disadvantages
Real-Time Data
Specialized
Equipment
Multimedia
Technique
Over Content
The biggest advantage of electronic presentations is their computerized format, which makes it easy to perform real-time manipulation of data. You can change a graphic, add a bulleted phrase, and even alter the sequence of your slides with a simple click of the mouse. You can add animation, video clips, sound, hypertext, and other multimedia effects to slides. You can preprogram and automate the release of text and graphical elements. In addition, electronic presentations are easy to store, transport, and customize for different audiences.
Electronic presentations are not without disadvantages, however. First, electronic slides require more expensive display equipment than overhead transparencies—especially if you are presenting to large audiences. This equipment can be complicated to use and may not be available in all situations. Second, most people spend too much time focusing on the technical components of an electronic presentation—they pay more attention to the animation and special effects of their slide shows than they do to the content of their message. Third, inexperienced presenters tend to pack too many special effects in their electronic slides, creating a visual feast of pictures and graphics that dazzle the audience, but blur the key message.
Flexibility
and Portability
Overuse of
Special Effects

18. Creating Effective Slides
Simplicity
Content
and Graphics
Consistency
Design
Elements
Special
Effects
Readability
Readability
Having too many visuals can detract from your message. It forces you to either rush through a presentation or to skip slides—some of which may be critical to your message. Once you’ve planned out what a slide is going to say, organize the content as you would for any written message. Then compose and polish the written content before focusing on the slide’s design elements.
When creating slides, keep in mind that simplicity is the key to effectiveness. Slides that are too complex or poorly written will confuse the audience. People can’t read and listen at the same time so your slides must be simple enough for the audience to understand within a moment or two. Therefore, your primary focus when creating text or graphic slides is to keep content and graphics simple and readable, select design elements that enhance your message without overshadowing it, be consistent in your design selections, and use special effects selectively .
Simplicity

19. Choosing a Color Scheme
Stimulate emotions
Recognize cultural differences
Limit color selections
Use contrasting colors
Adjust to room light
Order colors from dark to light
Color is a critical design element. It grabs the viewer’s attention, emphasizes important ideas, creates contrast, and isolates slide elements. Color can make your slides more attractive, lively, and professional. When choosing color, remember these important guidelines:
Use color to stimulate the right emotions.
Be sensitive to cultural differences.
Limit selections to a few complementary colors.
Use contrasting colors to increase readability.
Adjust color choices to room light.
Order colors from dark to light.

20. Additional Design Considerations
Background
Designs
Fonts and
Type Styles
Color is a critical design element. It grabs the viewer’s attention, emphasizes important ideas, creates contrast, and isolates slide elements. Color can make your slides more attractive, lively, and professional. It can also play a key role in the overall acceptance of your message.
A good background design is the key to a positive first impression. Your design choice can silently persuade the audience to pay attention or it can encourage them to look the other way. Choose a design that is simple, appropriate for the subject, and appealing to the audience.
When selecting fonts and type style for slides, follow these guidelines:
Avoid script or decorative fonts.
Limit your fonts to one or two per slide.
Use boldface type for slides so that letters won’t look washed out.
Avoid italicized type because it is difficult to read when projected.
Use both uppercase and lowercase letters, with extra white space between lines of text.
Use between 24- and 36-point type for electronic presentations, reserving the larger size for titles and the smaller size for bullet items. Headings of the same level of importance should use the same font, type size, and color.

21. Animation and Special Effects
Hyperlinks
Transitions
Builds
Unlike transparencies, electronic slide shows can include a number of special effects such as sound, animation, and video. Resist the tendency to use too many of these features. Excessive special effects overwhelm and distract audiences. Used sparingly, special effects add punch to an oral presentation.
Transitions control how one electronic slide replaces another on screen. When used effectively, transitions can make your presentation flow smoothly from slide to slide so that you keep the audience’s attention.
Similar to transitions, builds control the release of text, graphics, and other elements on slides. With builds you can make your bullet points appear one at a time rather than having all of them appear on a slide at once.
Hyperlinks allow you to build interactivity into electronic slides by coding text, graphics, or pictures, with hypertext markup language. When you click on a slide’s hyperlink with a mouse you are taken to a different slide in your presentation, to other files on a computer, or even to a Web page.

22. Creating Effective Handouts
Charts
or Diagrams
Copies
of Slides
Magazine
Articles
Brochures
and Pictures
Company
Reports
Lists
of Websites
Handouts are a terrific way to offer your audience additional material without overloading your slides with information. Candidates for good handout material include the following:
Complex charts and diagrams. Charts and tables that are too unwieldy for the screen or that demand thorough analysis make good handouts.
Company reports. In most cases lengthy research reports are inappropriate for handouts. Use photocopies of specific pages instead.
Magazine articles. Magazine articles make good handout materials. They are easy to photocopy and they are already formatted in an easy-to-read layout.
Websites. Lists of Websites related to your topic are useful. In addition to the URL address, annotate each item with a one-or-two sentence summary of each site’s content.
Copies of presentation slides. In many cases, audiences like to have small print versions of slides used by the speaker (about 3 to a page) along with accompanying comments and blank lines for note taking.
Other good handout materials include brochures, pictures, outlines, and a copy of the presentation agenda.

23. Mastering Your Delivery
Audience
Memorizing
Impromptu
Speaking
Reading
From Notes
Subject Matter
Subject Matter
Once you’ve planned, written, and developed visuals for your presentation, you're ready to begin practicing your delivery. You have a variety of delivery methods to choose from, some of which are easier to handle than others:
Memorizing. Unless you're a trained actor, avoid memorizing your speech, especially a long one. You're likely to forget your lines, and your speech will sound stilted. Besides, you'll often need to address audience questions during your speech, so you must be flexible enough to adjust your speech as you go. However, memorizing a quotation, an opening paragraph, or a few concluding remarks can bolster your confidence and strengthen your delivery.
Reading. If you're delivering a technical or complex presentation, you may want to read it. If you choose to read your speech, practice enough so that you can still maintain eye contact with your audience.
Speaking from notes. Making a presentation with the help of an outline, note cards, or visual aids is probably the most effective and easiest delivery mode. This approach gives you something to refer to and still allows for eye contact and interaction with the audience.
Impromptu speaking. You might have to give an impromptu, or unrehearsed, speech if you're called on to speak unexpectedly or if you've agreed to speak but neglected to prepare your remarks. When you're asked to speak "off the cuff," take a moment to think through what you'll say. Then avoid the temptation to ramble.
Audience

24. Practice Your Delivery
Preparing to Speak
Practice Your Delivery
Know the Location
Adapt the Content
Know the Material
Regardless of which delivery mode you use, be sure that you're thoroughly familiar with your subject. Knowing what you're talking about is the best way to build your self-confidence. Also, practicing helps keep you on track, helps you maintain a conversational tone with your audience, and boosts your confidence and composure.
In addition to knowing your material and practicing your delivery, check the location of your presentation in advance. Make sure the room is ready and that you will have everything you need.
Also, make sure you’re prepared to address audiences from other cultures. You may need to adapt the content of your presentation. Be sure to consider any cultural differences in appearance, mannerisms, and other speaking customs. Find out whether any changes are necessary for a specific audience or a particular occasion.

25. Building Your Confidence
Prepare Extra Material
Be Prepared
Rehearse
Get Comfortable
Think Positively
Don’t Panic
Visualize Success
Here are some ways to harness your nervous energy to become a more confident speaker.
Prepare more material than necessary. Combined with a genuine interest in your topic, extra knowledge will reduce your anxiety.
Rehearse. The more you know your material, the less panic you'll feel.
Think positively. See yourself as polished and professional, and your audience will too.
Visualize your success. Use the few minutes before you actually begin speaking to tell yourself you're on and you're ready.
Take a few deep breaths. Before you begin to speak, remember that your audience is silently wishing you success.
Be ready. Have your first sentence memorized and on the tip of your tongue.
Be comfortable. If your throat is dry, drink some water.
Don't panic. If you feel that you're losing your audience during your speech, try to pull them back by involving them in the action; ask for their opinions or pause for questions.
Keep going. Things usually get better as you go.
Focus outside yourself. Perhaps the best way to feel more confident is to focus on your message and audience.
Keep Going
Take a few deep breaths
Focus Outside Yourself

26. Appearing More Confident
Get Control
At the Start
Maintain
Eye Contact
Watch Your
Posture
Use Appropriate
Gestures
As you deliver your presentation, try to be aware of the nonverbal signals you're transmitting. Regardless of how you feel inside, your effectiveness greatly depends on how you look and sound.
Well-delivered presentations start with your first minute at the podium, so don't rush. Once your presentation is under way, be particularly careful to maintain eye contact with your audience.
Your posture is also important in projecting more confidence. Stand tall, with your weight on both feet and your shoulders back. Avoid gripping the lectern. In fact, you might step out from behind the lectern to help your audience feel more comfortable with you and to express your own comfort and confidence in what you're saying. Use your hands to emphasize your remarks with appropriate gestures. Meanwhile, vary your facial expressions to make the message more dynamic.
Finally, think about the sound of your voice. Studies indicate that people who speak with lower vocal tones at a slightly faster than average rate are perceived as being more credible.
Vary Facial
Expressions
Control Your
Tone of Voice

27. Presenting the Visuals
Highlighting
Overhead
Transparencies
Electronic
Slides
Changing
Pointing
The most common mistake people make when delivering a presentation is reading their slides or notes. The audience will lose interest quickly. Practice your presentation so that you will not be dependent on either your slides or your notes. You must know enough about your subject to elaborate on it.
If you are using overhead transparencies, the best approach is to introduce the next overhead as you remove the old one and position the new one on the projector. Immediately cover all but the first bulleted phrase with a sheet of paper to prevent the audience from reading ahead. As you advance through your discussion, you can move the paper down the transparency to uncover the next bullet, waiting a few seconds for the audience to find your point of reference. When you are finished using the transparency, it’s often a good idea to cover it until you’re ready to introduce a new slide.
If you are using electronic slides, the best approach is to introduce the slide before you show it and then give the audience a few seconds to view the title and design elements. With electronic slides you have more control over the release of information than you do if you’re using overhead transparencies.
If you’re using a pointer, remember that it’s a tool meant to guide the audience to a specific part of a visual. Use the pointer only at the time you need it, then fold it and remove it from sight. If you are using a laser pointer that puts a focused dot of light on the desired part of your visual, don’t overdo it.
Discussing

28. Answering Questions Focus on the Questioner Respond Appropriately
Control
the Situation
Maintain
Self-Control
When someone poses a question, focus your attention on that individual. Pay attention to body language and facial expression to help determine what the person really means.
Be sure to answer the question you're asked. Don't sidestep it, ignore it, or laugh it off. Furthermore, don't say more than you need to if you want to have enough time to cover all the questions.
Try to maintain control during the question-and-answer session by establishing some ground rules up front. Announce a time limit or question limit per person before you begin. Give as many audience members as possible a chance to participate by calling on people from different parts of the room.
If a question ever puts you on the hot seat, remember to be honest, but keep your cool. Look the person in the eye, answer the question as well as you can, and try not to show your feelings. Don't get into an argument.
In case your audience is too timid or hostile to ask questions, you might plant some of your own. If a friend or the meeting organizer gets the ball rolling, other people in the audience will probably join in.
When the time allotted for your presentation is up, call a halt to the question-and-answer session, even if more people want to talk. Prepare the audience for the end by saying: "Our time is almost up. Let's have one more question." After you've made your reply, summarize the main idea of the presentation and thank people for their attention.
Motivate
Questions
Conclude
the Speech