1. http://epsc428.wustl.edu/ http://www.crh.noaa.gov.lsx/ http://weather.unisys.com/upper_air/ua_nhem_300.html http://www.wunderground.com/ http://waterdata.usgs.gov/mo/nwis/rt EPSc 428 NWS StL USGS

2. Apollo 17

4. WATER BALANCE Global Condition P = ET OCEANS: E = 1.11 P overall, P > E Tropics E > P Trades CONTINENTS: E = 0.62 P => Runoff!

5. WATER BALANCE Global Condition P = ET OCEANS: E = 1.11 P overall, P > E Tropics E > P Trades CONTINENTS: E = 0.62 P => P = E + Ro for continental scale Note units!

6. WATER BALANCE: Lakes

7. WATER BALANCE: Lakes! P - ET - Ro = ∆S Where ∆S = Change in Storage = 0 for steady state Units!

8. WATER BALANCE: Lakes! P - ET - Ro = ∆S Where ∆S = Change in Storage = 0 for steady state Better Approach: dS/dt = inputs - outputs ∆S/∆t = (P-E)A +I - O

9. USA Rich water supply Avg. P ~ 30"/y 75 cm rain/y ET = 0.66 P Precipitation is geographically and temporally variable

10. Craig et al. USA Water Cycle Subsurface Flow 0.14 x 10 15 liters/y Streamflow 1.70 x 10 15 liters/y Consumptive Use 0.14 x 10 15 liters/y Precipitation 5.80 x 10 15 liters/y Evaporation 3.82 x 10 15 liters/y

11. USA E = 0.66*P P - ET + consumptive use - R o (sfc & subsfc) = 0 5.8 x 10 15 l/y - (3.82 +0.14) x 10 15 - (1.7+0.14) x 10 15 = 0 avg: 29.8” / y - 19.6" +0.7 - 8.7 + 0.7" = 0 avg: 75.6 cm/ y - 49.8 +1.8 cm - 22.1 + 1.8 cm = 0 Craig et al. p. 302

12. USA Rich water supply Avg. P ~ 30"/y 75 cm rain/y E = 0.66 P Precipitation is geographically and temporally variable 4”/y in Mojave >100”/ y in NW Coast Eastern USA: Water surplus Gets 2/3 of US total rainfall Only 5% of water withdrawn is used for irrigation Western USA: Water deficient 90% of water withdrawn is used for irrigation

13. USGS WSP 2250 Average Annual Precipitation 0-25 cm 25-50 50-75 75-100 100-150 150-250 >250 50 cm 20” 75cm 30” 100cm 40” 150cm 60” 25 cm 10”

14. Average Annual Pan Evaporation Craig et al.

15. USGS WSP 2250 Average Annual Runoff 0- 2.5 cm 2.5 -12.5 12.5 -50 50-100 >100

16. Average Water Surplus or Deficit Craig et al

17. USGS WSP 2250 Irrigated Cropland

18. USGS WSP 2250

20. WATER PROFILE Vadose Zone (Unsaturated Zone; Zone of Aeration) Solid, Liquid & Gas Phases Soil Water Intermediate Zone: thin film of water on pore linings; free to drain. Thickness variable; 100's ft in arid zones Capillary Water: water held up by surface tension Cannot pump P pore < 1 atm ! measure w/ tensiometer Water Table  Streams & lakes = intersection w/ surface P = 1 atm Phreatic Zone (Saturated Zone)

21. after Domenico & Schwartz 1990 Saturated | Unsaturated  <--- P=1 atm

22. Domenico & Schwartz 1990 h c =.0153/r UNITS ? LIMTS ? P A = P C = 1 atm P B = ? P D = ? 2r

23. Domenico & Schwartz 1990 h c = 0.153/r UNITS in cm ! P A = P C = 1 atm P B = 1 atm P D = 1 -  g h c 2r

24. Ppt. Event: Different zones give rise to different runoff components: Surface =>Interception (plants) (Golfers & lightning) Depression storage (“puddles”) Overland Flow (Surface Runoff) Vadose Zone (above water table) => Storage (Field Capacity) (  moisture limit under gravity) Interflow (Runoff from vadose zone, if exceed F.C.) GW recharge ( if exceed F.C.) Phreatic Zone (below water table) => Base Flow (Runoff from phreatic zone, if exceed F.C.)

25. Overland Flow  Interflow  Base Flow  Saturated | Unsaturated  after Domenico & Schwartz 1990

26. DeWiest 1965 ET E RoRo

27. Ppt. Event: Different zones give rise to different runoff components: Surface =>Interception (plants) (Golfers & lightning) Depression storage (“puddles”) Overland Flow (Surface Runoff) Vadose Zone (above water table) => Storage (Field Capacity) (  moisture limit under gravity) Interflow (Runoff from vadose zone, if exceed F.C.) GW recharge ( if exceed F.C.) Phreatic Zone (below water table) => Base Flow (Runoff from phreatic zone, if exceed F.C.)

28. Overland Flow : Horton (1933, 1940) = Classic model for streamflow generation During rain event, infiltration rate decreases exponentially w/ time If ppt rate < inf. cap then soil infiltration occurs If ppt rate > inf. cap then overland flow occurs Overland flow is inevitable for heavy rain Infiltration “capacity” f (in m/s): f = f c + ( f o - f c ) e -bt Actually: f is the infiltration rate f => fc, a constant that depends on the hydraulic conductivity K of the saturated soil (F&C, p. 212). Curve realized for heavy rains where f c = equilibrium capacity f o = initial (t=0) infiltration capacity b = “constant” (but must depend on rain amt & intensity)

29. Decreasing Infiltration Capacity Fetter 2001 f o = initial infiltration rate f c = equilibrium infiltration rate

30. Depression Storage Overland Flow Depression Storage Overland Flow Case A. ppt rate < f c All Rain Infiltrates Case C. ppt rate > f o Fetter 2001 Ppt rate Case B. f o > ppt rate > f c

31. DeWiest 1965 ET E RoRo

32. Fetter, 2001 Freeze & Cherry, 1978 Criss 2003

33. End#6

36. GROUNDWATER Subsurface water beneath zone of saturation w/i interconnected pores Capable of being pumped. Resides w/i Aquifers Largest volume of accessible fresh water (22% of FW) Largest use = Irrigation ; >1/2 is consumptive Non renewable Aquifer  Geologic formation w/ sufficient porosity “  “ and permeability K to allow water movement

37. Craig et al. 1996

38. Groundwater in USA 77 billion gal pumped /day in USA >6% of estimated natural surface flow USA pumping = 80% of total estimated natural GW flow Provides drinking water for ~ 50% of US & European citizens States that use more GW than fresh surface water AZ 60% of population served KS 51 NE 87 OK 34 Coastal states: DE66 FL93 HI94 MS92 TX45 Compare :MO 54 CA 45 CA = 28% of US total

39. USA Total Withdrawal USGS WSP 2250 USA Groundwater Withdrawal

40. Groundwater Occurrence: Aquifer types Alluvial deposits: River Valleys Fans Coastal plains Barrier deposits Glacial deposits Sandstones Carbonates: Limestone & Dolostone Volcanic rocks: interbeds, tuffs e.g., Thousand Springs, SRP Fractured crystalline rocks

41. Big Spring, MO 427 cfs avg Eminence Dolostone July 1998 Criss

42. Rising River, CA ~ 400 cfs Criss

43. USGS Circ 1186 Thousand Springs, Idaho

44. HIGH PLAINS AQUIFER Largest discrete aquifer in world : 174,000 sq. miles Regional rainfall only = 20-30” where ET = 60-100" Principal Source of Water for 13 M Irrigated Acres 170,000 wells into Ogallala Fm. 95% of water pumped is used for irrigation Water-level decline to > 100’ 1952-1980, ~7x increase in pumping costs in TX Increasing energy prices and declining levels Unconfined Aquifer (Water Table Aquifer) Ogallala Fm., Miocene clays, silts, sand & gravel 3.25 Billion acre-ft in storage, mostly in NE Saturated thickness to 1,000 ft. Recharge Rates: 0.024 to 6 inches/year

45. USGS Prof. Paper 1400-B Irrigated Acreage 1949-1978Groundwater Pumpage 1949-1978

46. USGS Prof. Paper 1400-B WATER TABLE 1980WATER TABLE DROP to 1980

47. Head Decline to 1997 Saturated thickness decline to 1997 USGS

48. Gaining & Losing Streams: Gaining Streams: Receive GW from base flow; Case where  is above stream base Losing Streams: Lose water to GW reservoir Case where  is below stream base Note: A gaining stream can become a losing stream during flood stage =>Bank Storage Most streams in USA mid-continent are gaining streams. Otherwise, would be bone dry every few days if not for base flow, like western streams Exception: karst dry valleys

49. USGS Circ 1186 Gaining Stream Losing Stream disconnected from water table

50. Hydrograph = plot of discharge vs. time, or = plot of stage vs. time Storm & Annual Hydrographs have rather similar forms Flood Hydrographs Q  Area small watersheds Q  √(Area) large watersheds

51. STREAM GAGING: Establish link between Stage S & Discharge Q 1)THEORETICAL EQUATIONS 2) SEMI-QUANTITATIVE EQUATIONS 3) WEIRS 4)VELOCITY-AREA METHOD THEORY of STEADY LAMINAR FLOW of Newtonian Fluid Channel Flow (slot) u = (G/2  )(a 2 -y 2 ) u avg = Ga 2 /3  Q ~  g s W a 3 /3  cm 3 /sec Pipe Flow u = (G/4  )(a 2 -r 2 ) u avg = Ga 2 /8  Q = g s  a 4 /8  cm 3 /sec  where G= pressure gradient, s=slope, 2a = slot depth or tube radius; W=width  viscosity; kinematic viscosity  cm 2 /sec

52. MO - Ozark dome- radial dips of Paleozoics Salty @ distance Ozark Confining Unit = Maquoketa Shale Ozark Aquifer, esp.: St. Peter Sandstone Roubidoux Sandstone Gasconade Dolostone Potosi Dolomite St Francois Confining Unit = Derby-Doe Run St Francois Aquifer: Bonneterre Dolomite Lamotte Sandstone Precambrian

54. Cambrian-Ordovician aquifer Dissolved Solids mg/l