1. LEARNING
A systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience.
2 types:
1. Associative learning: occurs when we make a connection between two events.
Classical and Operant Conditioning
Conditioning: the process of learning associations.
2. Observational learning: occurs when a person observes and imitates another’s behavior.

2. OPERANT CONDITIONING
A form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of a behavior’s occurrence.
Also called instrumental learning
Active process; behaviors occur spontaneously; the learner decides whether or not to repeat behavior based on the consequence
Voluntary behavior
Keywords: behavior, consequences
Important people:
Thorndike
Skinner
Seligman

3. THE LAW OF EFFECT Studied by Edward Thorndike (1898)
Locked hungry cats in a puzzle box and placed food outside
Cat’s used ‘trial and error’ to escape box and get food
Voluntary behavior changes because of its consequences:
Pleasant consequences strengthen behavior
Unpleasant consequences weaken behavior
Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened.

4. B.F. SKINNER Burrhus Frederic Skinner American psychologist
Mac daddy of Operant Conditioning
Developed the Skinner Box to test his concepts
Used rodents and pigeons
“Free will is an illusion!”

5. SKINNER BOX Originally known as an Operant Conditioning Chamber
Used to control experimental conditions
Has a lever or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a reinforcer such as food or water
The lever or key is connected to devices that record the animal’s response

6. ABC’S OF BEHAVIOR

7. CONSEQUENCES Reinforcement Punishment
A reinforcer is anything that INCREASES a behavior.
+ Positive Reinforcement
Addition of something pleasant.
- Negative Reinforcement
Removal of something unpleasant.
Two types:
Escape Learning
Avoidance Learning
A punisher is anything that DECREASES a behavior.
+ Positive Punishment
Addition of something unpleasant.
- Negative Punishment
Removal of something pleasant.

8. CONSEQUENCES Reinforcement Punishment Positive Reinforcement Example:
Getting money for grades
Getting a sticker for good behavior
Negative Reinforcement
Taking aspirin to get rid of a headache
Skipping class vs. getting kicked out of class
Positive Punishment
Example:
Getting a spanking
Getting a speeding ticket
Negative Punishment
Having your phone taken away
Going to jail

9. CONTINGENCY
Contingency: means that the behavior must serves as a reliable indicator that the consequence is on its way.

10. SHAPING
Rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
Reinforcing small steps on the way to the desired behavior.
To train a dog to get your slippers, you might reinforce these small steps:
First, to find the slippers
Then, to put the slippers in his mouth
Next, to walk with the slippers in his mouth
Last, to bring the slippers to you

11. PRIMARY & SECONDARY REINFORCERS
Primary Reinforcer:
Innate value
Things that are naturally reinforcing because they satisfy biological drives such as food, water, sleep, sex
Secondary Reinforcer:
Learned/Conditioned value
Things that we learn are reinforcing such as money, grades

12. TOKEN ECONOMY
 Good behaviors are rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for desired rewards.
Tokens: poker chips, fake money/coins, stickers, tickets…
Based on applied behavior analysis (ABA): the use of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior.
Also called behavior modification
Emphasizes the use of positive reinforcement to change behavior

13. ACQUISITION
The association is made between the behavior and the consequence.
Learning occurs when the learner becomes aware that the behavior has been reinforced or punished (consequence).

14. GENERALIZATION & DISCRIMINATION
Performing a reinforced behavior in a different situation.
Same behavior different situation
Responding appropriately to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced.
Different behavior for different situations

15. EXTINCTION & SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY
Extinction: Decreases the frequency of a behavior when the behavior is no longer reinforced.
Spontaneous Recovery: The behavior suddenly resumes after extinction.

16. SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
Continuous Reinforcement:
Reinforces the desired behavior every time it occurs.
Learned quickly; easy to extinguish
Examples:
Using a token to ride the subway.
Putting coins in a vending machine to get candy or soda.
Partial/Intermittent Reinforcement:
Reinforces the desired behavior only part of the time.
Slower acquisition; harder to extinguish

17. RATIO SCHEDULES Fixed-ratio schedule:
Reinforcement after a set number of behaviors.
Example:
Workers paid per 100 envelops stuffed
Getting to leave class after a multiple choice test.
*Variable-ratio schedule:
Reinforcement after a varying (unpredictable) number of behaviors.
Examples:
Playing a slot machine
Fishing/hunting

18. INTERVAL SCHEDULES Fixed-interval schedule:
Reinforcement of the first behavior after a set amount of time has passed.
Examples:
Getting a paycheck every two weeks
Scheduled exams
Variable-interval schedule:
Reinforcement of the first behavior after varying (unpredictable) amounts of time has passed.
Example:
POP Quizzes
Arrival of mail

19. SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
Reinforcement Schedules Compared
Schedule
Response Rate
Pattern of Responses
Resistance to Extinction
Fixed-ratio schedule
Very high
Steady response with low ratio. Brief pause after each reinforcement with very high ratio.
The higher the ratio, the more resistance to extinction.
Variable-ratio schedule
Highest response rate
Constant response pattern, no pauses
Most resistance to extinction.
Fixed-interval schedule
Lowest response rate
Long pause after reinforcement, followed by gradual acceleration.
The longer the interval, the more resistance to extinction.
Variable-interval schedule
Moderate
Stable, uniform response.
More resistance to extinction than fixed- interval schedule with same average interval.

20. SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT

21. IMMEDIATE & DELAYED REINFORCEMENT
Immediate Reinforcement: A reinforcer that occurs immediately after a behavior.
More effective for lower animals
Example:
A rat gets a food pellet when it presses a lever.
Delayed Reinforcement: A reinforcer that is postponed for a period of time after a behavior.
Has an effect on human behavior
A paycheck that comes at the end of a week.

22. IMMEDIATE & DELAYED PUNISHMENT
Immediate Punishment: A punisher that occurs immediately after a behavior.
More effective for lower animals
*Punishment works best when it is immediate and harsh!
Delayed Punishment: A punisher that is postponed for a period of time after a behavior.
Has an effect on human behavior

23. DELAYED GRATIFICATION
The ability to resist the temptation for a small immediate reward and wait for a larger delayed reward.
Immediate & mildly valued vs. delayed & highly valued
Also called deferred gratification
Example:
We may be more inclined to watching TV rather than get an A in AP Psychology, which requires constant studying.
Studied by Walter Mischel
The Marshmallow Test
Results found that delayed gratification correlated to:
Higher SAT scores
higher levels of competence reported by parents & teachers
Lower rates of substance abuse
Prefrontal cortex vs. limbic system

24. MOTIVATION Extrinsic Motivation:
The desire to perform a behavior due to external incentives such as rewards and punishments.
Intrinsic Motivation:
The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake, based on internal factors such as needs and fun.

25. OVERJUSTIFICATION
Occurs when extrinsic motivation decreases a person's intrinsic motivation to perform a behavior or participate in an activity.
When you pay more attention to the incentive, and less attention to the enjoyment and satisfaction that you receive from performing a behavior or activity.
Examples:
A painter may not paint for pleasure when she is accustomed to being paid for her work.
Losing interest in playing the violin after your mother promises to pay you for each hour of practice.
Rewarding kids for playing math games. After the rewards are terminated, children spent significantly less time playing the games than they had before they ever got rewards.

26. PREMACK PRINCIPLE
Preferred behaviors can be used as reinforcement for less preferred behaviors.
Preferred: behaviors with a higher level of intrinsic value/occur more often
Using an activity that is pleasurable to reward an activity that is less pleasurable.
Examples:
You have to clean your room before you watch TV
You have to do your homework before you can go to the movies

27. LEARNED HELPLESSNESS
An organism's learning through experience with unavoidable negative stimuli that it has no control over negative outcomes.
Studied by Martin Seligman (1967)
Dogs shocked for prolonged period of time would stop attempting to escape, even when given the opportunity to do so.
Has implications in depression.