1. 1 / 28 CS 425/625 Software Engineering Managing People Based on Chapter 22 of the textbook [Somm00] Ian Sommerville, Software Engineering, 6 th Ed., Addison-Wesley, 2000 and on the Ch22 PowerPoint presentation available at the book’s web-site: www.comp.lancs.ac.uk/computing/resources/IanS/SE6/Slides/index.html November 24, 2003

2. 2 / 28 Outline n n People in the Software Process n n Limits to Thinking n n Group Working n n Choosing and Keeping People

3. 3 / 28 People in the Software Process. n n People are an organization’s most important assets n n The manager’s tasks are essentially people oriented n n Software engineering is a cognitive and social activity n n Cognitive limitations should be taken into consideration in the software process

4. 4 / 28.People in the Software Process n n Management activities include: u u Problem solving using available people u u Motivating people who work on a project u u Planning what people are going to do u u Estimating how fast people will work u u Controlling people's activities u u Organizing the way in which people work

5. 5 / 28 Limits to Thinking n n People are very diverse, and do not all think in the same way n n However, all people are subject to the same constraints on their thinking due to: u u Memory organization u u Knowledge representation u u Motivation influences n n Awareness of the limits to the way people think is important in software process management

6. 6 / 28 Limits to Thinking: Memory Organization. n n Memory organization [Fig. 22.1 Somm00]

7. 7 / 28 Limits to Thinking:.Memory Organization n n Short term memory: u u Fast access time u u Limited capacity u u Holds 5-7 “chunks” of information u u Fast decay time n n Working memory: u u Larger capacity u u Longer access time u u Used for information processing u u Can retain information longer than the short term memory u u Relatively fast decay time n n Long term memory: u u Slow access time u u Very large capacity u u Somewhat unreliable retrieval mechanism (we forget things) u u Relatively high threshold (work/time/repetition needed to retain things in long term memory) u u Slow decay time

8. 8 / 28 Limits to Thinking: Cognitive Chunking n n Cognitive “chunking” [Fig. 22.2, Somm00]

9. 9 / 28 Limits to Thinking: Semantic and Syntactic Knowledge. n n Knowledge types: u Semantic knowledge, knowledge of concepts such as the operation of assignment statement, the notion of an object class, etc.   Organized, structured, acquired through experience and active learning, deeper and less volatile than the syntactic knowledge u u Syntactic knowledge, knowledge of details such as how to write a class description in UML, etc.   Disorganized, arbitrary, acquired through memorization, easier to forget than the semantic knowledge

10. 10 / 28 n n Syntactic and semantic knowledge [Fig. 22.3 Somm00] Limits to Thinking:.Semantic and Syntactic Knowledge

11. 11 / 28 Limits to Thinking: Problem Solving. n n Problem solving requires integration of different types of knowledge, e.g., computer, task, domain, and organization knowledge n n A semantic model of the problem as well as a corresponding model of the solution are built n n The process of program design involves: 1Integration of computer and task knowledge to create new knowledge and understand the problem 2Development of a semantic model of the solution and testing of this model against the problem 3Representation of this model in an appropriate notation or programming language

12. 12 / 28 Limits to Thinking:.Problem Solving n n Problem solving [Fig. 22.4, Somm00]

13. 13 / 28 Limits to Thinking: Motivation. n n A manager must know how to motivate the people working on a project n n Different types of motivation are related to: u u Basic needs (e.g., food, sleep, etc.) u u Personal needs (e.g. respect, self-esteem) u u Social needs (e.g., to be accepted as part of a group) n n Motivation should also take into account different personality types: u u Task-oriented u u Self-oriented u u Interaction-oriented

14. 14 / 28 Limits to Thinking:.Motivation n n Human needs hierarchy [Fig. 22.5, Somm00]

15. 15 / 28 Group Working: Introduction n n Software engineering typically requires group activity n n The development schedule for most non-trivial software projects is such that they cannot be completed by one person working alone n n Group interaction is a key factor of group performance n n But flexibility in group composition is often limited and managers must do the best they can with available people

16. 16 / 28 Group Working: Main Factors n n Factors that influence group working: u u Group composition u u Group leadership u u Group cohesiveness u u Group communications u u Group organization

17. 17 / 28 Group Working: Composition n n Group composed of members who share the same motivation can be problematic: u u Task-oriented: everyone wants to do their own thing u u Self-oriented: everyone wants to be the boss u u Interaction-oriented: too much chatting, not enough work n n An effective group has a balance of all types n n However, this can be difficult to achieve because most engineers are task-oriented n n Also, there is a need for all members to be involved in decisions which affect the group

18. 18 / 28 Group Working: Leadership n n Leadership depends on respect, not on titular status n n In a team, there may be both a technical and an administrative leader n n Democratic leadership is more effective than autocratic leadership n n A career path based on technical competence should be supported

19. 19 / 28 Group Working: Cohesiveness n n In a cohesive group, members consider the group more important than the individuals n n Advantages of cohesive groups: u u Group quality standards can be developed u u Group members work closely together u u Team members learn from each other u u Egoless programming can be practised n n Cohesiveness can be build through: u u Social events u u Developing a group identity and territory u u Explicit team-building activities u u Open access to information n n Strong, cohesive groups can lead however to irrational resistance to leadership change and to “groupthink”

20. 20 / 28 Group Working: Communications n n Good communications are vital for group working n n Information must be exchanged on the status of work, design decisions and changes to previous decisions n n Good communications also strengthens group cohesion and promotes understanding n n Factors that influence the effectiveness of group communications : u u Group size u u Group structure u u Group composition u u Physical work environment of the group

21. 21 / 28 Group Working: Organization… n n Software engineering group sizes should be relatively small (at most 8 members) n n Small teams can follow a democratic team organization n n On the other hand, chief programmer teams try to make the most effective use of skills and experience n n Extreme programming involves democratic team organization

22. 22 / 28 Group Working:.Organization.. n n In democratic team organization: u u The group acts as a whole and comes to a consensus on decisions affecting the group u u The group leader serves as the external interface of the group but does not allocate specific work items u u The work is discussed by the group and tasks are allocated according to ability and experience u u This approach is successful for groups where all members are experienced and competent

23. 23 / 28 Group Working:..Organization. n Chief programmer teams consist of a kernel of specialists helped by others added to the project as needed n This group organization allow very capable programmers to be responsible for most of the software development

24. 24 / 28 Group Working: …Organization n n Issues with chief programmer teams: u u Talented designers and programmers are difficult to find u u Group members may resent the chief programmer taking the credit for the group’s success u u Projects will fail if both the chief and deputy programmer become unavailable u u Organizational structures may not be able to accommodate this type of group

25. 25 / 28 Choosing and Keeping People… n n Hiring people for a project is a major managerial responsibility n n Appointment decisions are based on: u u Information provided by the candidates in their resumés u u Information obtained at an interview u u Recommendations from people who know the candidates n n Some companies use psychological or aptitude tests

26. 26 / 28.Choosing and Keeping People.. n n Staff selection factors [Fig. 22.7 Somm00]

27. 27 / 28..Choosing and Keeping People. n n Working environments: u u The physical workplace has an important effect on individual productivity and satisfaction (comfort, facilities, privacy) u u Health and safety aspects must also be taken into consideration (e.g., lighting, heating, furniture) n n Important environmental factors: u u Privacy: each engineer should have his or her work area u u Outside awareness: people prefer natural light u u Personalization: different people organize their work environment in different ways u u Spaces for group meeting: teams working together need spaces for holding formal and informal meetings

28. 28 / 28 …Choosing and Keeping People n n Office layout [Fig 22.8, Somm00]