1. Glucocorticoids
High levels of circulating cortisol, as seen with corticosteroid drugs (prednisone), or tumors (adrenal cortex, pituitary gland) is called Cushing’s syndrome
Manifestations include hyper-
glycemia, poor wound healing,
osteoporosis, dermatitis, fat
redistribution (spindly arms and
legs, moon face, buffalo hump at
the neck), and truncal obesity

2. Glucocorticoids
In adults, hyposecretion of glucocorticoids and aldosterone, usually as a result of an autoimmune disorder, is called Addison’s disease
The physiologic effects include
hypoglycemia, Na+ loss, low BP,
dehydration, and muscle weakness
only after his death did the world
learn that President Kennedy
suffered from Addison’s disease
Many people know that U.S. President John F. Kennedy ( ) suffered from back pain most of his life and that he was assassinated in But it was not until after his death that the public learned that President Kennedy also had Addison's disease.
Addison's disease is a chronic condition that results when the adrenal glands are unable to produce enough of certain important hormones. This can lead to fatigue, low blood pressure, loss of appetite, and darkening of the skin.
It is a rare condition that results when the body fails to produce enough of certain hormones* that help regulate important body functions.
Image from

3. The Adrenal Medulla
The inner region of the adrenal gland, the adrenal medulla, is a modified sympathetic ganglion that develops from the same embryonic tissue as all other sympathetic ganglia of the ANS and is innervated by sympathetic preganglionic neurons
The catecholamines epinephrine (80%), and norepinephrine (20%), are secreted at the adrenal medulla and serve to prolong the sympathetic response

4. ADRENAL MEDULLA HORMONES (Interactions Animation)
Epinephrine/Norepinephrine
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5. The Pancreas
The pancreas is both an endocrine and an exocrine gland. It is located posterior and inferior to the stomach. We will discuss its endocrine functions here and its exocrine functions
in detail in chapter 24
The tail is contained within the splenorenal ligament but all the other parts of the pancreas are retroperitoneal.

6. The Pancreas
Most of the exocrine cells of the pancreas are arranged in clusters called acini and produce digestive enzymes which flow through ducts into the GI tract
Distributed among the acini are clusters of endocrine tissue
called pancreatic
islets (islets of
Langerhans)

7. Pancreatic Hormones
Each pancreatic islet contains four types of hormone-secreting cells: alpha (A), beta (B), delta (D), and F cells
Alpha cells secrete glucagon which increases blood glucose levels by acting
on hepatocytes to
convert glycogen
to glucose
Beta cells secrete
insulin

8. Pancreatic Hormones
Insulin is an anabolic hormone - it decreases blood glucose levels by acting on
hepatocytes to convert glucose
to glycogen and then facilitating
diffusion of glucose into the cells
Insulin and glucagon are counter-
regulatory hormones in that
their actions act to balance one
another in terms of blood glucose

9. Pancreatic Hormones
Somatostatin acts in a paracrine manner to inhibit both insulin and glucagon release from neighboring beta and alpha cells. It
also inhibits the secretion
of hGH
The interactions of the
four pancreatic hormones
are complex and not
completely understood

10. Glucose/Insulin Regulation 1 5 2 3 4 6 1 5 2 3 4 6 7 1 5 2 3 4 6 7 8 1
Insulin acts on various
body cells to:
• accelerate facilitated
diffusion of glucose
into cells
• speed conversion of
glucose into glycogen
(glycogenesis)
• increase uptake of
amino acids and increase
protein synthesis
• speed synthesis of fatty
acids (lipogenesis)
• slow glycogenolysis
• slow gluconeogenesis
Glucagon acts on
hepatocytes
(liver cells) to:
• convert glycogen
into glucose
(glycogenolysis)
• form glucose from
lactic acid and
certain amino acids
(gluconeogenesis)
Glucose released
by hepatocytes
raises blood glucose
level to normal
If blood glucose
continues to rise,
hyperglycemia inhibits
release of glucagon
Low blood glucose
(hypoglycemia)
stimulates alpha
cells to secrete
High blood glucose
(hyperglycemia)
stimulates beta cells
to secrete
INSULIN
GLUCAGON 1 5 2 3 4 6
Insulin acts on various
body cells to:
• accelerate facilitated
diffusion of glucose
into cells
• speed conversion of
glucose into glycogen
(glycogenesis)
• increase uptake of
amino acids and increase
protein synthesis
• speed synthesis of fatty
acids (lipogenesis)
• slow glycogenolysis
• slow gluconeogenesis
Blood glucose level falls
Glucagon acts on
hepatocytes
(liver cells) to:
• convert glycogen
into glucose
(glycogenolysis)
• form glucose from
lactic acid and
certain amino acids
(gluconeogenesis)
Glucose released
by hepatocytes
raises blood glucose
level to normal
If blood glucose
continues to rise,
hyperglycemia inhibits
release of glucagon
Low blood glucose
(hypoglycemia)
stimulates alpha
cells to secrete
High blood glucose
(hyperglycemia)
stimulates beta cells
to secrete
INSULIN
GLUCAGON 1 5 2 3 4 6 7
Insulin acts on various
body cells to:
• accelerate facilitated
diffusion of glucose
into cells
• speed conversion of
glucose into glycogen
(glycogenesis)
• increase uptake of
amino acids and increase
protein synthesis
• speed synthesis of fatty
acids (lipogenesis)
• slow glycogenolysis
• slow gluconeogenesis
If blood glucose continues
to fall, hypoglycemia
inhibits release of
insulin
Blood glucose level falls
Glucagon acts on
hepatocytes
(liver cells) to:
• convert glycogen
into glucose
(glycogenolysis)
• form glucose from
lactic acid and
certain amino acids
(gluconeogenesis)
Glucose released
by hepatocytes
raises blood glucose
level to normal
If blood glucose
continues to rise,
hyperglycemia inhibits
release of glucagon
Low blood glucose
(hypoglycemia)
stimulates alpha
cells to secrete
High blood glucose
(hyperglycemia)
stimulates beta cells
to secrete
INSULIN
GLUCAGON 1 5 2 3 4 6 7 8
Low blood glucose
(hypoglycemia)
stimulates alpha
cells to secrete 1
GLUCAGON
Glucagon acts on
hepatocytes
(liver cells) to:
• convert glycogen
into glucose
(glycogenolysis)
• form glucose from
lactic acid and
certain amino acids
(gluconeogenesis)
Glucose released
by hepatocytes
raises blood glucose
level to normal
If blood glucose
continues to rise,
hyperglycemia inhibits
release of glucagon
Low blood glucose
(hypoglycemia)
stimulates alpha
cells to secrete
High blood glucose
(hyperglycemia)
stimulates beta cells
to secrete
GLUCAGON 1 5 2 3 4
INSULIN
Glucagon acts on
hepatocytes
(liver cells) to:
• convert glycogen
into glucose
(glycogenolysis)
• form glucose from
lactic acid and
certain amino acids
(gluconeogenesis)
Low blood glucose
(hypoglycemia)
stimulates alpha
cells to secrete
GLUCAGON 1 2
Glucagon acts on
hepatocytes
(liver cells) to:
• convert glycogen
into glucose
(glycogenolysis)
• form glucose from
lactic acid and
certain amino acids
(gluconeogenesis)
Glucose released
by hepatocytes
raises blood glucose
level to normal
Low blood glucose
(hypoglycemia)
stimulates alpha
cells to secrete
GLUCAGON 1 2 3
Glucagon acts on
hepatocytes
(liver cells) to:
• convert glycogen
into glucose
(glycogenolysis)
• form glucose from
lactic acid and
certain amino acids
(gluconeogenesis)
Glucose released
by hepatocytes
raises blood glucose
level to normal
If blood glucose
continues to rise,
hyperglycemia inhibits
release of glucagon
Low blood glucose
(hypoglycemia)
stimulates alpha
cells to secrete
GLUCAGON 1 2 3 4
Glucose/Insulin
Regulation

11. PANCREATIC HORMONES (Interactions Animation)
Insulin
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12. Gonadal Hormones
The ovaries are paired oval bodies located in the female pelvic cavity. They produce several steroid hormones including two estrogens (estradiol and estrone), progesterone, relaxin, and inhibin
Estrogens, along with FSH and
LH from the anterior pituitary,
regulate the menstrual cycle,
maintain pregnancy, and prepare
the mammary glands for lactation

13. Gonadal Hormones
Ovarian hormones also promote enlargement of the breasts and widening of the hips at puberty, and help maintain these female secondary sex characteristics
Progesterone prepares the uterus lining for implantation of a fertilized ovum

14. OVARIAN HORMONES (Interactions Animation)
Hormonal Regulation of Female Reproductive System
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15. Gonadal Hormones
The male gonads, the testes, are oval glands that lie in the scrotum. The main hormone produced and secreted by the testes is testosterone, an androgen (male sex hormone)
Testosterone is needed for
production of sperm and
maintenance of male
secondary sex characteristics

16. TESTICULAR HORMONES (Interactions Animation)
Hormonal Regulation of Male Reproductive Function
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