1. Central Dogma – part 2 DNA RNA PROTEIN Translation Central Dogma
of molecular biology

2. The Genetic Code—Essential Questions
How are the instructions for assembling amino acids into proteins encoded into DNA?
There are 20 amino acids, but there are only four nucleotide bases in DNA
How many nucleotides correspond to an amino acid? 2 2

3. Codons: Triplets of Nucleotides
The flow of information from gene to protein is based on a triplet code: a series of nonoverlapping, three-nucleotide words
The words of a gene are transcribed into complementary nonoverlapping three-nucleotide words of mRNA
These words are then translated into a chain of amino acids, forming a polypeptide 3 3

4. During translation, the mRNA base triplets, called codons, are read in the 5 to 3 direction
Each codon specifies the amino acid (one of 20) to be placed at the corresponding position along a polypeptide 4 4

5. Cracking the Code All 64 codons were deciphered by the mid-1960s
Of the 64 triplets, 61 code for amino acids; 3 triplets are “stop” signals to end translation
The genetic code is redundant: more than one codon may specify a particular amino acid
But it is not ambiguous: no codon specifies more than one amino acid 5 5

6. Codons are read one at a time in a nonoverlapping fashion
Codons must be read in the correct reading frame (correct groupings) in order for the specified polypeptide to be produced
Codons are read one at a time in a nonoverlapping fashion 6 6

7. Concept 14.4: Translation is the RNA-directed synthesis of a polypeptide: a closer look
Genetic information flows from mRNA to protein through the process of translation 7 7

8. Molecular Components of Translation
A cell translates an mRNA message into protein with the help of transfer RNA (tRNA)
tRNAs transfer amino acids to the growing polypeptide in a ribosome
Translation is a complex process in terms of its biochemistry and mechanics 8 8

9. Amino acids Polypeptide tRNA with amino acid attached Ribosome tRNA
Figure 14.14
Amino acids
Polypeptide
tRNA with
amino acid
attached
Ribosome
Trp
Phe
Gly
Figure Translation: the basic concept
tRNA C C C C
Anticodon A G A A A U G G U U U G G C 5
Codons 3
mRNA 9

10. The Structure and Function of Transfer RNA
A tRNA molecule consists of a single RNA strand that is only about 80 nucleotides long
tRNA molecules can base-pair with themselves
Flattened into one plane, a tRNA molecule looks like a cloverleaf
In three dimensions, tRNA is roughly L-shaped, where one end of the L contains the anticodon that base-pairs with an mRNA codon
Video: tRNA Model 10 10

11. The Structure and Function of Transfer RNA
Each tRNA can translate a particular mRNA codon into a given amino acid
The tRNA contains an amino acid at one end and at the other end has a nucleotide triplet that can base-pair with the complementary codon on mRNA 11 11

12. (b) Three-dimensional structure (c) Symbol used in this book
Figure 14.15 3
Amino acid
attachment
site A C C A 5
Amino acid
attachment site C G G C 5 C G U G 3 U A A U U A U * C C A G G A C U A * A C G * C U * G U G U
Hydrogen
bonds C * C G A G G * * C A G U * G * G A G C
Hydrogen
bonds G C U A
Figure The structure of transfer RNA (tRNA) * G * A A C A A G * U 3 5 A G A
Anticodon
Anticodon
Anticodon
(b) Three-dimensional
structure
(c) Symbol used
in this book
(a) Two-dimensional structure 12

13. Accurate translation requires two steps
First: a correct match between a tRNA and an amino acid
Second: a correct match between the tRNA anticodon and an mRNA codon
Flexible pairing at the third base of a codon is called wobble and allows some tRNAs to bind to more than one codon
This allows mRNA to be translated with fewer than the 64 tRNAs that would be required without wobble 13 13

14. Ribosomes
Ribosomes facilitate specific coupling of tRNA anticodons with mRNA codons during protein synthesis
The large and small ribosomal are made of proteins and ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs)
In bacterial and eukaryotic ribosomes the large and small subunits join to form a ribosome only when attached to an mRNA molecule 14 14

15. A ribosome has three binding sites for tRNA
The P site holds the tRNA that carries the growing polypeptide chain
The A site holds the tRNA that carries the next amino acid to be added to the chain
The E site is the exit site, where discharged tRNAs leave the ribosome 15 15

16. (b) Schematic model showing binding sites
Figure 14.17b
P site
(Peptidyl-tRNA
binding site)
Exit tunnel
A site (Aminoacyl-
tRNA binding site)
E site
(Exit site) E P A
Large
subunit
Figure 14.17b The anatomy of a functioning ribosome (part 2: binding sites)
mRNA
binding site
Small
subunit
(b) Schematic model showing binding sites 16

17. (c) Schematic model with mRNA and tRNA
Figure 14.17c
Growing polypeptide
Amino end
Next amino acid
to be added to
polypeptide
chain E
tRNA
mRNA 3
Figure 14.17c The anatomy of a functioning ribosome (part 3: mRNA and tRNA)
Codons 5
(c) Schematic model with mRNA and tRNA 17

18. Building a Polypeptide
The three stages of translation
Initiation
Elongation
Termination
All three stages require protein “factors” that aid in the translation process 18 18

19. Ribosome Association and Initiation of Translation
The initiation stage of translation brings together mRNA, a tRNA with the first amino acid, and the two ribosomal subunits
Then the small subunit moves along the mRNA until it reaches the start codon (AUG)
The addition of the large ribosomal subunit is last and completes the formation of the translation initiation complex
Proteins called initiation factors bring all these components together 19 19

20. Translation initiation complex
Figure 14.18
Large
ribosomal
subunit 3 U C 5 A
P site
Met 5 A 3
Met U G P i
Initiator
tRNA 
GTP
GDP E A
mRNA 5 5 3 3
Start codon
Figure The initiation of translation
Small
ribosomal
subunit
mRNA binding site
Translation initiation complex 1
Small ribosomal subunit binds
to mRNA. 2
Large ribosomal subunit
completes the initiation complex. 20

21. Elongation of the Polypeptide Chain
During elongation, amino acids are added one by one to the previous amino acid chain
Each addition involves proteins called elongation factors and occurs in three steps: codon recognition, peptide bond formation, and translocation
Translation proceeds along the mRNA in a 5 to 3 direction 21 21

22. Amino end of polypeptide Codon recognition 1 E E P A 3 mRNA 5 GTP
Figure
Amino end
of polypeptide 1
Codon recognition E 3
mRNA P
site A
site 5
GTP
GDP  P i E P A
Figure The elongation cycle of translation (step 1) 22

23. Amino end of polypeptide Codon recognition Peptide bond formation 1 E
Figure
Amino end
of polypeptide 1
Codon recognition E 3
mRNA P
site A
site 5
GTP
GDP  P i E P A
Figure The elongation cycle of translation (step 2) 2
Peptide bond
formation E P A 23

24. Amino end of polypeptide Codon recognition Ribosome ready for
Figure
Amino end
of polypeptide 1
Codon recognition E 3
mRNA
Ribosome ready for
next aminoacyl tRNA P
site A
site 5
GTP
GDP  P i E E P A P A
Figure The elongation cycle of translation (step 3)
GDP  P i 2
Peptide bond
formation 3
Translocation
GTP E P A 24

25. Termination of Translation
Termination occurs when a stop codon in the mRNA reaches the A site of the ribosome
The A site accepts a protein called a release factor
The release factor causes the addition of a water molecule instead of an amino acid
This reaction releases the polypeptide, and the translation assembly then comes apart 25 25

26. Release factor Stop codon (UAG, UAA, or UGA) Ribosome reaches a
Figure
Release
factor 3 5
Stop codon
(UAG, UAA, or UGA) 1
Ribosome reaches a
stop codon on mRNA.
Figure The termination of translation (step 1) 26

27. Release factor Free polypeptide Stop codon (UAG, UAA, or UGA)
Figure
Release
factor
Free
polypeptide 3 3 5 5
Stop codon
(UAG, UAA, or UGA) 1
Ribosome reaches a
stop codon on mRNA. 2
Release factor
promotes
hydrolysis.
Figure The termination of translation (step 2) 27

28. Release factor Free polypeptide Stop codon (UAG, UAA, or UGA)
Figure
Release
factor
Free
polypeptide 5 3 3 3 5 5 2
GTP
Stop codon
(UAG, UAA, or UGA)
2 GDP  P i 1
Ribosome reaches a
stop codon on mRNA. 2
Release factor
promotes
hydrolysis. 3
Ribosomal
subunits and other
components
dissociate.
Figure The termination of translation (step 3) 28

29. Completing and Targeting the Functional Protein
Often translation is not sufficient to make a functional protein
Polypeptide chains are modified after translation or targeted to specific sites in the cell 29 29

30. Protein Folding and Post-Translational Modifications
During synthesis, a polypeptide chain spontaneously coils and folds into its three-dimensional shape
Proteins may also require post-translational modifications before doing their jobs 30 30

31. Polypeptides destined for secretion are marked by a signal peptide
A signal-recognition particle (SRP) binds to the signal peptide
The SRP brings the signal peptide and its ribosome to the Endoplasmic Reticulum 31 31

32. So Many Things Are Happening In your cells! Figure 14.24 DNA
TRANSCRIPTION 3
Poly-A
RNA
polymerase 5
RNA
transcript
Exon
RNA
PROCESSING
RNA transcript
(pre-mRNA)
Intron
Aminoacyl-tRNA
synthetase So
Many
Things
Are
Happening
In your cells!
Poly-A
NUCLEUS
Amino
acid
AMINO ACID
ACTIVATION
CYTOPLASM
tRNA
mRNA
5 Cap 3 A
Aminoacyl
(charged)
tRNA P
Poly-A E
Ribosomal
subunits
Figure A summary of transcription and translation in a eukaryotic cell
5 Cap
TRANSLATION C A C U A E A C
Anticodon A A A U G G U U U A U G
Codon
Ribosome 32