1. Fear conditioning… e.g., Electric shock associated with specific stimuli

3. SCR: Skin Conductance Response (sweat)

4. Fear-relevant: e.g., snake Fear-irrelevant: e.g., butterfly SCR: Skin Conductance Response (sweat)

5. Fear-relevant: e.g., snake Fear-irrelevant: e.g., butterfly SCR: Skin Conductance Response (sweat)

7. Same Race Different Race

8. Operant Conditioning: learning when an individual’s response is followed by a reinforcement or punishment – Reinforcement: an event that increases the future probability of the response that produced it Positive reinforcement: Reward Negative reinforcement: Escape from punishment – Punishment: an event that suppresses the future probability of the response that produced it Operant conditioning

9. Biological needs Several hours have passed since last meal Find food, eat it Drive is reduced (reinforcement) The drive reduction hypothesis Increased drive (hunger) Increased exploratory activity

10. Biological needs Several hours have passed since last meal Increased drive (hunger) Increased exploratory activity Find food, eat it Drive is reduced (reinforcement) The drive reduction hypothesis

11. For instance, rats learning to work for food

12. Skinner Box For instance, rats learning to work for food

13. Response to central hole = a way to obtain food Phase One A new experiment…

14. Response to central hole = a way to obtain food Phase One A new experiment… Better deal to the right > Will rats figure it out? Phase Two

15. Better deal to the right > Will rats figure it out?

16. Better deal to the right > Will rats figure it out? Yes, in a couple of days

17. Concurrent changes in neural functioning growth of new neurons growth of new synapses increase or decrease in transmitter release increase or decrease in sensitivity to transmitter release changes in concentration of receptors

18. Long Term Potentiation The most widely studied neuroplastic phenomena of the mammalian nervous system Considered a fundamental mechanism underlying learning and memory in mammals.

19. What is Long Term Potentiation? Enduring facilitation of synaptic transmission following activation of a synapse by intense high-frequency stimulation of pre-synaptic neurons… or Changes in the postsynaptic neuron resulting in the strengthening of synaptic transmission.

20. The key event is the co-occurrence of the pre and post synaptic neurons. Neurons that fire together wire together while neurons that are out of sync lose their link. Most commonly studied in neurons from the hippocampus

21. Biochemical Mechanisms of LTP in Hippocampus AMPA and NMDA receptors are involved in LTP –glutamate receptors that open channels in postsynaptic neurons to let in one or more kinds of ions (ionotropic) AMPA receptors: glutamate opens sodium channels

22. NMDA receptors: normally blocked by magnesium but respond to glutamate when the neuron is depolarized by AMPA receptors –calcium enters and activates protein CaMKII, which is necessary for LTP, and sets several processes in motion: structure of AMPA receptors change, becoming more responsive to glutamate some NMDA receptors change to AMPA receptors and increase their responsiveness to glutamate dendrites may build more AMPA receptors and make more branches Once established, LTP no longer depends on NMDA synapses

24. LTP and Behavior Research shows – abnormal NMDA receptors impair learning – more than normal NMDA receptors enhances learning – drugs that block LTP block learning while drugs that facilitate LTP facilitate learning – a lack of AMPA receptors creates deficits in LTP and memory

26. Types of memory Declarative memory – Facts (who is…, what is…) – Events (when did you…) Non-declarative memory – Procedures (how do you…) – Conditioning (automatic responses) Musculature Emotional

27. Declarative memory – Facts (who is…, what is…) – Events (when did you…) Non-declarative memory – Procedures (how do you…) – Conditioning (automatic responses) Musculature Emotional Medial temporal lobe Hippocampus Types of memory

28. Declarative memory – Facts (who is…, what is…) – Events (when did you…) Non-declarative memory – Procedures (how do you…) – Conditioning (automatic responses) Musculature Emotional Medial temporal lobe Hippocampus Striatum Cerebellum Amygdala Types of memory

29. More types of memory… Long-term memory – Questions about encoding, retrieving – Medial temporal lobe (“store”) Short-term memory – Working memory – (Consciousness, attention) – Dorsolateral frontal cortex (“operator”)