2. 1

3. 2 DNA DNA.DNA is often called the blueprint of life. In simple terms, DNA contains the instructions for making proteins within the cell.

4. 3 Watson & Crick’s Model

5. History Rosalind Franklin & Maurice Wilkins had taken the 1 st pictures of DNA using X-ray crystallization

6. This proved that DNA had a helical shape.

7. History The Nobel Prize in Medicine 1962 Francis Harry Compton Crick James Dewey Watson Maurice Hugh Frederick Wilkins Rosalind Franklin (Died of cancer 1958)

8. Wilkins has become a historical footnote and Watson & Crick are remembered as the Fathers of DNA WatsonCrick

10. 9 DNA Why do we study DNA? We study DNA for many reasons, e.g., its central importance to all life on Earth, medical benefits such as cures for diseases, better food crops.

11. 10 Chromosomes and DNA Our genes are on our chromosomes. Chromosomes are made up of a chemical called DNA.

12. 11 The Shape of the Molecule DNA is a very long polymer. The basic shape is like a twisted ladder or zipper. This is called a double helix.

13. 12 The Double Helix Molecule The DNA double helix has two strands twisted together.

14. 13 One Strand of DNA The backbone or sides of the ladder of the molecule are alternating phosphates and deoxyribose sugar The teeth or rungs of the ladder are nitrogenous bases. phosphate deoxyribose bases

15. 14 Nucleotides CC C O Phosphate O C C O -P O O O One deoxyribose together with its phosphate and nitrogen base make a nucleotide. Nitrogenous base Deoxyribose

16. 15 Nucleotides CC C O Phosphate O C C O -P O O O O O O O One deoxyribose together with its phosphate and base make a nucleotide. Nitrogenous base Deoxyribose

17. 16 One Strand of DNA One strand of DNA is a polymer of nucleotides. One strand of DNA has many millions of nucleotides. nucleotide

18. 17 Four nitrogenous bases Cytosine C Thymine T Adenine A Guanine G DNA has four different bases:

19. 18 Two Stranded DNA Remember, DNA has two strands that fit together something like a zipper. The teeth are the nitrogenous bases but why do they stick together?

20. 19 C C C C N N O N C C C C N N O N N N C Hydrogen Bonds The bases attract each other because of hydrogen bonds. Hydrogen bonds are weak but there are millions and millions of them in a single molecule of DNA. The bonds between cytosine and guanine are shown here with dotted lines

21. 20 Hydrogen Bonds, Hydrogen Bonds, cont. When making hydrogen bonds, cytosine always pairs up with guanine Adenine always pairs up with thymine Adenine is bonded to thymine here C C C C N N N N N C C C C C N N O O C

22. 21 Chargaff’s Rule: Base Pairing Rule Adenine and Thymine always join together A T Cytosine and Guanine always join together C G

23. 22 DNA by the Numbers Each cell has about 2 m of DNA. The average human has 75 trillion cells. The average human has enough DNA to go from the earth to the sun more than 400 times. DNA has a diameter of only 0.000000002 m. The earth is 150 billion m or 93 million miles from the sun.

24. What have we learned about DNA so far? 1. DNA is made of units called _________. 2. A sugar and a _______ make up the sides of the DNA ladder? 3. DNA is found in the ____ of a eukaryotic cell. 4. If a one strand of DNA is: ATCCGTAAG. What is the complementary strand? 5. What three scientists won the Nobel prize in medicine for their discovery of DNA’s structure? 6. What is the process where viruses reproduce called?

25. What have we learned about DNA so far? 1. DNA is made of units called __nucleotides__. 2. A sugar and a _______ make up the sides of the DNA ladder?

26. What have we learned about DNA so far? 1. DNA is made of units called __nucleotides__. 2. A sugar and a __phosphate_ make up the sides of the DNA ladder? 3. DNA is found in the ____ of a eukaryotic cell.

27. What have we learned about DNA so far? 1. DNA is made of units called __nucleotides__. 2. A sugar and a __phosphate_ make up the sides of the DNA ladder? 3. DNA is found in the _nucleus_ of a eukaryotic cell. 4. If a one strand of DNA is: ATCCGTAAG. What is the complementary strand?

28. What have we learned about DNA so far? 1. DNA is made of units called __nucleotides__. 2. A sugar and a __phosphate_ make up the sides of the DNA ladder? 3. DNA is found in the _nucleus_ of a eukaryotic cell. 4. If a one strand of DNA is: ATCCGTAAG. What is the complementary strand? TAGGCATTC 5. What three scientists won the Nobel prize in medicine for their discovery of DNA’s structure?

29. What have we learned about DNA so far? 1. DNA is made of units called __nucleotides__. 2. A sugar and a __phosphate_ make up the sides of the DNA ladder? 3. DNA is found in the _nucleus_ of a eukaryotic cell. 4. If a one strand of DNA is: ATCCGTAAG. What is the complementary strand? TAGGCATTC 5. What three scientists won the Nobel prize in medicine for their discovery of DNA’s structure? Watson, Crick and Wilkins 6. What is the process where viruses reproduce called?

30. What have we learned about DNA so far? 1. DNA is made of units called __nucleotides__. 2. A sugar and a __phosphate_ make up the sides of the DNA ladder? 3. DNA is found in the _nucleus_ of a eukaryotic cell. 4. If a one strand of DNA is: ATCCGTAAG. What is the complementary strand? TAGGCATTC 5. What three scientists won the Nobel prize in medicine for their discovery of DNA’s structure? Watson, Crick and Wilkins 6. What is the process where viruses reproduce called? The Lytic Cycle

31. 30

32. RNA & Protein Synthesis

33. Chromosome Structure of Eukaryotes Chromosome Supercoils Coils Nucleosome Histones DNA double helix © Pearson Education Inc, publishing as Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved Nucleosomes pack together to form thick coiled fibers. When cell is NOT dividing, these fibers are spread out in nucleus as ___________. (Allows reading of code) CHROMATIN

34. HOW IS DNA COPIED? Image from: http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/evo101/images/dna_bases.gif The structure of DNA explains how it can be copied. Each strand has all the info needed to construct the __________other half. If strands are separated, _____________ rules allow you to fill in the complementary bases. matching base-pairing

35. Figure 12–11 DNA Replication Section 12-2 Growth Replication fork DNA polymerase New strand Original strand DNA polymerase Nitrogenous bases Replication fork Original strand New strand Sites where strand separation and replication occur are called _____________ replication forks

36. REPLICATION STEPS 1.Enzymes “unzip” molecule by breaking _______________ that hold the strands together and unwind it. 2. _______________ joins nucleotides using original strand as template and ______________for errors. 3. Copying happens in ________ directions along the two strands & in __________ places at once. Hydrogen bonds DNA polymerase spell checks opposite multiple

37. DNA Replication DNA replication occurs before every cell in the body divides. Every cell in the body has the exact same DNA (except for sex cells) Replication occurs in the S stage of the Interphase part of cell division or (Mitosis)

38. See a video clip about DNA REPLICATION (12B)12B REPLICATION ANIMATION

39. ACTIVITY BE A DNA MOLECULEDNA MOLECULE

40. DNA Semi-conservative means that you conserve part of the original structure in the new one. You end up with 2 identical strands of DNA.

41. 1. Why is replication necessary? 2. When does replication occur? 3. Describe how replication works. 4.Use the complementary rule to create the complementary strand: A--- ? G--- ? C--- ? T--- ? A--- ? G--- ? A--- ? G--- ? C--- ? A--- ? G--- ? T--- ? Replication Quiz

42. 1. Why is replication necessary? So both new cells will have the correct DNA 2.When does replication occur? 3.Describe how replication works. 4. Use the complementary rule to create the complementary strand: A---G---C---T---A---G---A---G---C---A---G---T--- Replication Quiz

43. 1. Why is replication necessary? So both new cells will have the correct DNA 2. When does replication occur? During interphase (S phase). 3.Describe how replication works. 4. Use the complementary rule to create the complementary strand: Replication Quiz A---G---C---T---A---G---A---G---C---A---G---T---

44. 1. Why is replication necessary? So both new cells will have the correct DNA 2. When does replication occur? During interphase (S phase). 3. Describe how replication works. Enzymes unzip DNA and complementary nucleotides join each original strand. 4. Use the complementary rule to create the complementary strand: Replication Quiz A--- T G--- C C---GT--- A A--- T G--- C A--- T G--- C C--- G A--- T G--- C T--- A

45. DNA Gene - a segment of DNA that codes for a protein, which in turn codes for a trait (skin tone, eye color, etc.) A gene is a stretch of DNA.

46. DNA A mistake in DNA replication is called a mutation. Many enzymes are involved in finding and repairing mistakes.

47. Mutagen: An agent, such as a chemical, ultraviolet light, or a radioactive element, that can induce or increase the frequency of mutation in an organism. (Almost anything that you can think of that causes cancer is a mutagen.)

48. Mutations A change in DNA sequence A mistake that’s made during replication, translation, transcription or cell division Can be: harmful: disease deformities helpful: organism better able to survive neutral: organism unaffected If a mutation occurs in a sperm or egg cell, that mutation is passed to the offspring, if a mutation occurs in a body or somatic cell it only affect the organism and is not passed on to the offspring.

49. Mutations Example: Sickle Cell Anemia When can having the sickle cell trait be an advantage?

50. Mutations Example: Hemophilia

51. DNA Repair A complex system of enzymes, active in the G 2 stage of interphase, serves as a back up to repair damaged DNA before it is dispersed into new cells during mitosis.

53. RNA O O=P-O OPhosphate Group Group N Nitrogenous base (A, U, G, C ) (A, U, G, C ) CH2 O C1C1 C4C4 C3C3 C2C2 5 Sugar Sugar (ribose) (ribose)

54. RNA Function: obtain information from DNA & synthesizes proteins

55. 3 differences from DNA 1.Single strand instead of double strand 2.Ribose instead of deoxyribose 3.Uracil instead of thymine

56. 3 types of RNA 1.Messenger RNA (mRNA)- copies information from DNA for protein synthesis Codon- 3 base pairs that code for a single amino acid. codon

57. 3 types of RNA 2. Transfer RNA (tRNA)- collects amino acids for protein synthesis Anticodon-a sequence of 3 bases that are complementary base pairs to a codon in the mRNA

58. 3 types of RNA 3. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)- combines with proteins to form ribosomes

59. Amino Acids Amino acids- the building blocks of protein At least one kind of tRNA is present for each of the 20 amino acids used in protein synthesis.

60. Transcription - mRNA is made from DNA & goes to the ribosome Translation - Proteins are made from the message on the mRNA

61. Transcription In order for cells to make proteins, the DNA code must be transcribed (copied) to mRNA. The mRNA carries the code from the nucleus to the ribosomes. Occurs in the nucleus

63. Translation At the ribosome, amino acids (AA) are linked together to form specific proteins. The amino acid sequence is directed by the mRNA molecule. ribosome Amino acids

65. Make mRNA ---- Transcription DNA RNA DNA sequence ATG AAA AAC AAG GTA TAG mRNA sequence ????

66. Make mRNA ---- Transcription DNA sequence ATG AAA AAC AAG GTA TAG mRNA sequence UAC

67. Make mRNA ---- Transcription DNA sequence ATG AAA AAC AAG GTA TAG mRNA sequence UAC UUU

68. Make mRNA ---- Transcription DNA sequence ATG AAA AAC AAG GTA TAG mRNA sequence UAC UUU UUG

69. Make mRNA ---- Transcription DNA sequence ATG AAA AAC AAG GTA TAG mRNA sequence UAC UUU UUG UUC

70. Make mRNA ---- Transcription DNA sequence ATG AAA AAC AAG GTA TAG mRNA sequence UAC UUU UUG UUC CAU

71. Make mRNA ---- Transcription DNA sequence ATG AAA AAC AAG GTA TAG mRNA sequence UAC UUU UUG UUC CAU AUC

72. Make a Protein mRNA sequence (codon) UAC UUU UUG UUC CAU AUC tRNA sequence (anti- codon) ___ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____

73. Make a Protein mRNA sequence (codon) UAC UUU UUG UUC CAU AUC tRNA sequence (anti- codon) AUG

74. Make a Protein mRNA sequence (codon) UAC UUU UUG UUC CAU AUC tRNA sequence (anti- codon) AUG AAA

75. Make a Protein mRNA sequence (codon) UAC UUU UUG UUC CAU AUC tRNA sequence (anti- codon) AUG AAA AAC

76. Make a Protein mRNA sequence (codon) UAC UUU UUG UUC CAU AUC tRNA sequence (anti- codon) AUG AAA AAC AAG

77. Make a Protein mRNA sequence (codon) UAC UUU UUG UUC CAU AUC tRNA sequence (anti- codon) AUG AAA AAC AAG GUA

78. Make a Protein tRNA sequence (anti- codon) AUG AAA AAC AAG GUA UAG mRNA sequence (codon) UAC UUU UUG UUC CAU AUC

79. Make a Protein mRNA sequence (codon) UAC UUU UUG UUC CAU AUC tRNA sequence (anti- codon) AUG AAA AAC AAG GUA

80. Make a Protein mRNA sequence (codon) UAC UUU UUG UUC CAU AUC tRNA sequence (anti- codon) AUG AAA AAC AAG GUA

81. Make a Protein mRNA sequence (codon) UAC UUU UUG UUC CAU AUC tRNA sequence (anti- codon) AUG AAA AAC AAG GUA

82. Chart found on p. 211 in your book.

83. Make Protein (amino acids) mRNA sequence (codon) UAC UUU UUG UUC CAU AUC

84. Make Protein (amino acids) Tyr mRNA sequence (codon) UAC UUU UUG UUC CAU AUC

85. Make Protein (amino acids) TyrPhe mRNA sequence (codon) UAC UUU UUG UUC CAU AUC

86. Make Protein (amino acids) TyrPhe Leu mRNA sequence (codon) UAC UUU UUG UUC CAU AUC

87. Make Protein (amino acids) TyrPhe Leu Phe mRNA sequence (codon) UAC UUU UUG UUC CAU AUC

88. Make Protein (amino acids) TyrPhe Leu PheHist mRNA sequence (codon) UAC UUU UUG UUC CAU AUC

89. Make Protein (amino acids) TyrPhe Leu PheHist Iso mRNA sequence (codon) UAC UUU UUG UUC CAU AUC

90. Make mRNA Tyr Phe Leu Phe Hist Iso Amino Acid sequence --- Protein mRNA sequence (codon) UAC UUU UUG UUC CAU AUC

91. Human Genome Project The Human Genome Project is a collaborative effort of scientists around the world to map the entire gene sequence of organisms. This information will be useful in detection, prevention, and treatment of many genetic diseases.

92. DNA Technologies DNA technologies allow scientists to identify, study, and modify genes. Forensic identification is an example of the application of DNA technology.

93. Gene Therapy Gene therapy is a technique for correcting defective genes responsible for disease development. Possible cures for: –diabetes –cardiovascular disease –cystic fibrosis –Alzheimer's –Parkinson’s –and many other diseases is possible.

94. Genetic Engineering The human manipulation of the genetic material of a cell. Recombinant DNA- Genetically engineered DNA prepared by splicing genes from one species into the cells of a different species. Such DNA becomes part of the host's genetic makeup and is replicated.

95. Genetic Engineering Genetic engineering techniques are used in a variety of industries, in agriculture, in basic research, and in medicine. This genetically engineered cow resists infections of the udders and can help to increase dairy production.

96. Genetic Engineering There is great potential for the development of useful products through genetic engineering EX., human growth hormone, insulin, and pest- and disease-resistant fruits and vegetables Seedless watermelons are genetically engineered

97. Genetic Engineering We can now grow new body parts and soon donating blood will be a thing of the past, but will we go too far? Photo of a mouse growing a "human ear"

98. 1. Why is transcription necessary? 2. Describe transcription. 3.Why is translation necessary? 4.Describe translation 5.What are the main differences between DNA and RNA? 6.Using the chart on page 211, identify the amino acids coded for by these codons: UGGCAGUGC

99. 1. Why is transcription necessary? Transcription makes messenger RNA (MRNA) to carry the code for proteins out of the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm. 2. Describe transcription. 3.Why is translation necessary? 4.Describe translation 5.What are the main differences between DNA and RNA? 6.Using the chart on page 211, identify the amino acids coded for by these codons: UGGCAGUGC

100. 1. Why is transcription necessary? Transcription makes messenger RNA (MRNA) to carry the code for proteins out of the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm. 2. Describe transcription. RNA polymerase binds to DNA, separates the strands, then uses one strand as a template to assemble MRNA. 3. Why is translation necessary? 4. Describe translation. 5. What are the main differences between DNA and RNA?

101. 1. Why is transcription necessary? Transcription makes messenger RNA (MRNA) to carry the code for proteins out of the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm. 2. Describe transcription. RNA polymerase binds to DNA, separates the strands, then uses one strand as a template to assemble MRNA. 3. Why is translation necessary? DNA cannot leave the nucleus, so mRNA carries the message. 4. Describe translation. 5. What are the main differences between DNA and RNA?

102. 4. Describe translation. The cell uses information from MRNA to produce proteins. 5. What are the main differences between DNA and RNA. 6.Using the codon chart, identify the amino acids coded for by these codons: UGGCAGUGC

103. 4. Describe translation. The cell uses information from MRNA to produce proteins. 5. What are the main differences between DNA and RNA. DNA has deoxyribose, RNA has ribose; DNA has 2 strands, RNA has one strand; DNA has thymine, RNA has uracil. 6.Using the codon chart, identify the amino acids coded for by these codons: UGGCAGUGC

104. 4. Describe translation. The cell uses information from MRNA to produce proteins. 5. What are the main differences between DNA and RNA. DNA has deoxyribose, RNA has ribose; DNA has 2 strands, RNA has one strand; DNA has thymine, RNA has uracil. 6.Using the codon chart, identify the amino acids coded for by these codons: UGGCAGUGC tryptophan-glutamine-cysteine

105. If a strand of DNA is 30% Adenine, then what percentage of the cell is: Thymine – Guanine- Cytosine -

106. DNA strand Replicate DNA DNA strand Replicate DNA DNA strandReplicate DNA ATG GAA TTG AAC TCT GCA TGT TAC GCG TTA AGC AAG GCT CTA TGC