1. Chapter 6 Learning

2. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov
Russian physician/ neurophysiologist
Nobel Prize, 1904
studied digestive secretions

3. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning
Pavlov’s device for recording salivation

4. Pavlov’s Apparatus for Studying Classical Conditioning in Dogs

5. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning: Respondent Behavior
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
stimulus that unconditionally- naturally and automatically - triggers a response
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus
salivation when food is in the mouth

6. Classical Conditioning: Respondent Behavior
learning in which a neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a response after being paired with another stimulus that naturally elicits that response
Unconditioned response (UCR): automatic response to a stimulus
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): naturally and automatically elicits a response
Conditioned response (CR): learned response to a previously neutral stimulus
Conditioned stimulus (CS): after repeated pairings with UCS, elicits the same response

7. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning: Respondent Behavior
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
Conditioned Response (CR)
learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus

8. Pavlov’s Classic Experiment
Before Conditioning
During Conditioning
After Conditioning
UCS (food
in mouth)
Neutral
stimulus
(tone) No
salivation
UCR
(salivation) CS
CR (salivation)

9. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning
UCS
(passionate
kiss)
UCR
(sexual
arousal) CS
(onion
breath) CR
Kiss)

10. Classical Conditioning

11. Classic Conditioning Allows Animals to Learn to Predict Events
Learning theorists once believed that the learning in classical conditioning is unintentional and automatic (classic behaviorism).
Most contemporary learning theorists now believe classical conditioning involves quite a bit of “mindfulness” because, (through the conditioning process) humans and other animals are learning to reliably predict upcoming events.

12. Classic Conditioning Allows Animals to Learn to Predict Events
Psychologists once believed that the key to acquiring a conditioned response was the sheer number of CS-UCS pairings.
However, the order and timing of CS-UCS pairings is also very important because it provides valuable information about the upcoming occurrence of the unconditioned stimulus.

13. Utility of classical responding: Avoiding a Predator’s Attack through Classical Conditioning—Step 1

14. Avoiding a Predator’s Attack through Classical Conditioning—Step 2

15. Avoiding a Predator’s Attack through Classical Conditioning—Step 3

16. Stages in Classical (Pavlovian) Conditioning
Acquisition
the initial stage of learning, during which a response is established and gradually strengthened
the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus

17. Stages in Classical (Pavlovian) Conditioning
Extinction: gradual weakening and disappearance of the conditioned response
Spontaneous recovery: reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus

18. After Acquisition, Other Stimuli Can Produce the Conditioned Response
Stimulus generalization: tendency for a conditioned response to be elicited by stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus

19. Generalization Drops of saliva in 30 seconds 60 50 40 30 20 10 Hind
Hind
paw
Pelvis
Shoulder
Front
Thigh
Trunk
Foreleg
Part of body stimulated

20. After Acquisition, Other Stimuli Can Produce the Conditioned Response
Higher-order conditioning: neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus after being paired with an existing conditioned stimulus

21. Animals Differ in What Responses Can Be Classically Conditioned
Early learning theorists assumed that the principles of conditioning were similar across all species, but subsequent research indicates that this assumption is incorrect.
Animals often differ in what responses can be conditioned.
In some animals, some responses can be conditioned much more readily to certain stimuli than to others.
An animal’s biology steers it toward certain kinds of conditioning.

22. Taste aversion study by Garcia and Koelling
Rats learned to avoid a light-noise combination when it was paired with electric shock, but not when it was followed by X rays that made them nauseous.
In contrast, rats quickly learned to avoid flavored water when it was followed by X rays, but they did not readily acquire an aversion to this same water when it was followed by shock.
It is also adaptive that in taste aversion, strong conditioning develops despite the long delay between the CS (the taste) and the UCS (the nausea).

23. Biological Constraints on Taste Aversion in Rats

24. Animals Differ in What Responses Can Be Classically Conditioned
Phobias: exaggerated and irrational fears of objects or situations
Such intense fear reactions often develop through classical conditioning.
We can develop a phobia toward anything, but some objects (snakes) or situations elicit phobic reactions more easily than others.

25. Nausea Conditioning among Cancer Patients
UCS
(drug)
UCR
(nausea) CS
(waiting
room) CR

26. Little Albert’s Fear Conditioning
UCS
(loud noise)
UCR
(fear) CS
(rat) CR
Stimulus similar
to rat (such as
rabbit)
Conditioned fear
(generalization)

27. Operant Conditioning B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
elaborated Thorndike’s Law of Effect
developed behavioral technology

28. Operant Behavior Is Voluntary & Directed by Consequences
Edward Thorndike ‘s Law of Effect:
the relationship between behavior and its consequences
So named because behavior becomes more or less likely based on the effect it has in producing desirable or undesirable consequences.

29. Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Rewarded behavior is likely to recur
E. L. Thorndike

30. Operant Behavior Is Voluntary & Directed by Consequences
B. F. Skinner made the law of effect the cornerstone for his influential theory of learning, called operant conditioning.
According to Skinner, the organism’s behavior is “operating” on the environment to achieve some desired goal.
Operant conditioning: learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement and weakened if followed by punishment

31. Operant Conditioning Operant Chamber (“Skinner Box”)
soundproof chamber with a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer
contains a device to record responses

32. Skinner Box

33. Shaping Reinforces Closer Approximations to Desired Behavior
Shaping (or the method of successive approximations): teaching a new behavior by reinforcing closer and closer approximations to the desired behavior

34. A Reinforcer Increases the Probability of the Behavior It Follows
The fundamental principle of behaviorism is that rewarded behavior is likely to be repeated.
This is known as reinforcement in operant conditioning.
It also states the positive side of Thorndike’s Law of Effect.

35. A Reinforcer Increases the Probability of the Behavior It Follows
Primary versus secondary reinforcers
Primary reinforcers: innately reinforcing—satisfy biological needs.
Secondary reinforcers: learned and become reinforcing when associated with a primary reinforcer

36. A Reinforcer Increases the Probability of the Behavior It Follows
Positive and negative reinforcers
Positive reinforcers: strengthen a response by presenting a positive stimulus after a response
Negative reinforcer: strengthens a response by removing an aversive stimulus after a response

37. Positive and Negative Reinforcement, Positive and Negative Punishment

38. Different Reinforcement Schedules Lead to Different Learning and Performance Rates
Continuous reinforcement leads to the fastest learning.
The biggest problem with continuous reinforcement is that when it ends, extinction occurs rapidly.

39. Different Reinforcement Schedules Lead to Different Learning and Performance Rates
Partial reinforcement has an important effect on your continued performance because being reinforced only once in a while keeps you responding vigorously for longer periods of time than does continuous reinforcement.

40. Different Reinforcement Schedules Lead to Different Learning and Performance Rates
Fixed-interval schedules: reinforce the first response after a fixed-time interval has elapsed
Fixed-ratio schedules: reinforce a response after a specified number of nonreinforced responses
Variable-interval schedules: reinforce the first response after a variable-time interval has elapsed
Variable-ratio schedules: reinforce a response after a variable number of nonreinforced responses

41. Schedules of Reinforcement

42. Accidental Reinforcement Can Cause Superstitious Behavior
Superstitious behavior: learned because it happened to be followed by a reinforcer, even though this behavior was not the cause of the reinforcer.
Skinner trained superstitious behavior in hungry pigeons.
He reasoned that when reinforcement occurred, it would be paired with whatever response the pigeons had just performed.
Instances of accidental reinforcement triggering superstitious behavior is common among people.

43. Punishment Should Be Used Only under Certain Circumstances
Punishment: The process by which a consequence decreases the probability of the behavior that it follows.

44. Punishment Should Be Used Only under Certain Circumstances
To be effective in reducing unwanted behaviors:
The punishment must be prompt,
It must be relatively strong, and
It must be consistently applied.
Alternative to punishment of undesirable behavior:
Allow undesirable actions to continue without either positive or negative consequences until they are extinguished

45. Criticism of Operant Conditioning Theory is that it Overlooks Genetic Predispositions
Biological constraints on learning
As with classical conditioning, an animal’s biology can restrict its capacity for operant conditioning.
Species-specific behavior patterns can interfere with operant conditioning, a genetic constraint called instinctive drift.

46. Criticism of Operant Conditioning Theory is that it Overlooks Cognitive Processes
Latent learning: learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement and is not demonstrated until sufficient reinforcement is provided
Learning can occur without any reinforcement, something that the theory of operant conditioning assumed was not possible.

47. Latent Learning

48. Operant Conditioning Theory Overlooks Cognitive Processes
Learned helplessness: the passive resignation produced by repeated exposure to aversive events that cannot be avoided
Here again, in contradiction to behaviorist theory, research demonstrated that mental processes play a significant role in learning.

49. Applications of Operant Conditioning
Structure and feedback in learning – immediate reinforcement
Defined performance goals and immediate reinforcement at work
Parenting – reward good behavior, ignore whining, time-out

50. Observational Learning
learning by observing and imitating the behavior of others
The others whom we observe and imitate are called models.
Observational learning helps children learn how to behave in their families and in their cultures.Yet, what about the learning that occurs without direct experience?

51. Social Learning Theory-Albert Bandura
Social learning theory says that people learn social behaviors mainly through observation and cognitive processing of information, rather than through direct experience.
Learning the consequences of an action by observing its consequences for someone else is known as vicarious conditioning.

52. Children Can Learn Aggressive Behavior through Observation
Bobo doll studies: the first set of experiments demonstrating the power of observational learning in eliciting aggression.
Research demonstrates that children are less likely to imitate the actions of punished aggressors.

53. Children Can Learn Aggressive Behavior through Observation
Bandura believes children observe and learn aggression through many avenues, but the three principal ones are:
Families: where adults use violence
Communities: where aggression is considered to be a sign of manhood, especially among males
Media: principally television and the movies

54. Children Can Learn Aggressive Behavior through Observation
Research indicates that aggressive behavior in children is significantly reduced when they spend less time watching violent television shows and playing violent video games.