1. Problematizing the place of grammar in SLE research Dr. Douglas Fleming University of Ottawa

2. What is grammar? Commonly conceived of as a set of elements and rules that describes a language; in structural (transformational) models of language it refers to the innate ‘hard-wired’ nature of language in the brain (we will problematize this later); it is interesting to note that the first reference to grammar we have (Greeks: Thrax) conceived of grammar instrumentally; two types of grammar: a) descriptive grammar b) prescriptive grammar first prescriptive grammar in English (1762; Lowth) coincided with development of capitalism. controversial from the beginning (1784: Fell) the task of the grammarian is to find out, not make, rules of grammar example of changes in prescriptive grammar: gender specific pronouns

3. Grammar translation formal codification commonly attributed to Erasmus (1466-1536); developed out of the ecclesiastic use of Latin; adopted by educated and class elites; centered on the memorization of verb forms, grammar rules, and vocabulary; methods concentrated on: the translation of literary texts; comprehension questions following a text; teacher-centered activities.

4. Audio-lingual approach originated out of the U.S. ‘Army Method’ (WW2); based on the behaviorist belief that language learning consists of habit formation; communication and context not emphasized; purpose of language use for learner not judged to be important; features repetitive drills and memorization of dialogue; emphasis placed on pronunciation; activities usually teacher-centered.

5. Designer methods a multitude of techniques developed by specific curriculum and materials designers in the 1960’s- 1980’s; often spawned dogmatic attitudes (and profitable educational empires); most were based on the pop-psychology of the time; three of the most popular of these methods were: –Total Physical Response –Suggestopedia –The Silent Way

6. Krashen: Acquisition/ Learning Hypothesis Acquisition the subconscious process involved in using language automatically in meaningful communication; exemplified by children’s use of language; instilled by meaningful and natural interaction; speakers not worried about accuracy. Learning the conscious processes involved in learning the grammar and structure of a language; instilled by decontextualised formal instruction that usually has limited meaning or usefulness; far less important than acquisition and separate from it.

7. Krashen: Monitor Hypothesis language learners monitor themselves in terms of how closely they conform to learnt models of the target language they have learnt; this is the limited role of the ‘learning system’; the 'monitor' is the editor, which plans and corrects target language use whenever the learner has: –sufficient time to activate it; –the opportunity to focus on accuracy; –a correct understanding of the correct structural rules involved. the role of conscious learning should be limited to correcting minor errors

8. some learners over use the monitor, which leads them to excessively concentrate on grammatical accuracy and neglect fluency; these learners might be able to provide a compendium of grammar rules, but can not use the language for meaningful communication; they are often introverts, those with low self-confidence and perfectionists; other learners under use the monitor, leading them to be verbose but inaccurate speakers of the second language; extroverts and non-perfectionists are under-users; Optimal users have a balanced use of the monitor.

9. Krashen: Natural Order Hypothesis Krashen contended, based on research done in the 1970’s by Dulay & Burt, Fathman and Makino, that the acquisition of a second language followed a predictable 'natural order‘, regardless of age, gender or other background factors; He encouraged further research, but noted that these ‘natural orders’ did not conform to structural or logical descriptions of grammar;

10. Input Hypothesis acquisition best occurs when the learners receives second language 'input' that is one step beyond their current stage of linguistic competence; often termed as comprehensible input, or 1+ although there are some similarities between Krashen’s views and Vygotsky’s Zone of Approximate Development, bear in mind that comprehensible input occurs in naturalistic settings and according to a ‘natural order’ of development; the instructional aspects of Vygotsky’s theory are not at play here.

11. Affective Filter Hypothesis 'affective variables' (such as motivation, self- confidence and anxiety) have a large part to play in determining how receptive one is to learning a second language; learners experiencing high motivation, great self- confidence, and low levels of anxiety acquire the second language easier; these learners have low affective filters learners experiencing low motivation, poor self- esteem, and high levels of anxiety have high affective filters.

12. The Communicative Approach the most commonly accepted methodology since the 1980s; emphasizes the communicative aspect of teaching language, concentrating on function rather than form. As Allen and Widdowson (1979) stated, the approach involves, "the learning of rules of use as well as rules of grammar" (p.141); The goal is to create a realistic context for language acquisition in the classroom.

13. The focus is on functional language usage and the ability to learners to express their own ideas, feelings, attitudes, desires and needs; open ended questioning and problem-solving activities and exchanges of personal information are commonly utilized; students usually negotiate meaning while working with authentic materials (realia) in small groups activities.

14. What is the relationship between explicit knowledge of the language and actually using it? Ellis (1997) identified 3 positions in the research: Strong Interface Position; Non-Interface Position; Weak Interface Position.

15. Cognitive Approaches: Focus on Form "The focus on form approach considers grammar to be heterogeneous, meaning that some grammar points are easy to explain and easy to apply, and other points are difficult if not impossible to apply... A focus- on form pedagogy profitably mixes explicit and implicit techniques depending on the grammar item and the communicative task” (Kennedy, 2004)

16. Builds on the Communicative Approach; Is a compromise between the strong and the non-interface positions; Is related to structured formulae for the K-7 and Secondary panels such as Balanced Literacy and Smart Learning.