1. Chapter 7 Precipitation Processes Chapter 7 Precipitation Processes

2. Relative sizes of cloud droplets and raindrops; r is the radius in micrometers, n the number per liter of air, and v the terminal fall speed in centimeters per second. The circumference of the circles are drawn approximately to scale, but the black dot representing a typical CCN is twenty-five times larger than it should be relative to the other circles. Adapted from Adv. in Geophys. 5, 244 (1958).

3. + Clouds Warm clouds: T > 0 ºC, water droplets Cold clouds: T < 0 ºC, ice crystals and/or supercooled droplets Cool clouds: lower part T > 0ºC upper part T < 0ºC

4. Cold clouds (a) have temperatures below 0 °C throughout and consist entirely of ice crystals, supercooled droplets, and a mixture of the two. Cool clouds (b) have temperatures above 0 °C in the lower reaches and subfreezing conditions above.

5. + Growth of cloud droplets (1) Initially: condensation, up to 20 μm Thereafter: condensation too slow

6. The largest droplet (collector drop) falls through a warm cloud and overtakes some of the smaller droplets because of its greater terminal velocity contributing to the collision– coalescence process. Growth of cloud droplets (2) Collision Coalescence

7. A collector drop collides with only some of the droplets in its path. The likelihood of a collision depends on both the absolute size of the collector and its size relative to the droplets below. If the collector drop is much larger than those below, the percentage of collisions (collision efficiency) will be low. As a collector drop falls (a), it compresses the air beneath it (b). This causes a pressure gradient to develop that pushes very small droplets out of its path (c). Small droplets get swept aside avoiding impact. Collision

8. When a collector drop and a smaller drop collide, they can either combine to form a single, larger droplet or bounce apart. Most often the colliding droplets stick together. This process is called coalescence, and the percentage of colliding droplets that join together is the coalescence efficiency. Because most collisions result in coalescence, coalescence efficiencies are often near 100 percent. Coalescence

9. Why Cloud Droplets Don’t Fall Force of drag (luftmotstand) Counteracts force of gravity (tyngdekraft) Balance at terminal velocity (terminalhast)

10. In the Bergeron process, if enough water vapor is in the air to keep a supercooled water droplet in equilibrium, more than enough moisture is present to keep an ice crystal in equilibrium. This causes deposition (i.e., the transfer of water vapor to ice) to exceed sublimation (i.e., the transfer of ice to water vapor), and the crystal grows in size (a). This, in turn, draws water vapor out of the air, causing the water droplet to undergo net evaporation (b). Evaporation from the droplet puts more water vapor into the air and facilitates further growth of the ice crystal (c). Although this is shown here as a sequence of discrete steps, the processes occur simultaneously. Bergeron process: deposition Sat p over ice < sat p over water

11. Snow results from the growth of ice crystals through deposition, riming, and aggregation. Ice crystals in clouds can have a wide variety of shapes, including six-sided plates, columns, solid or hollow needles, and complex dendrites with numerous long, narrow extensions. Growth of ice crystals / snow Deposition Collision Coalescence

12. When ice crystals fall through a cloud and collide with supercooled droplets, the liquid water freezes onto them. This process, called riming (or accretion), causes rapid growth of the ice crystals, which further increases their fall speeds and promotes even further riming. Aggregation is the joining of two ice crystals to form a single, larger one. Aggregation occurs most easily when the ice crystals have a thin coating of liquid water to make them more “adhesive.” Growth of ice crystals Riming: Collision with supercooled droplets Aggregation: Collision with ice crystals

17. Kondensstriper og cirrus fra fly