1. Physics 3313 - Lecture 6 2/8/101 3313 Andrew Brandt Monday February 8, 2010 Dr. Andrew Brandt 1.HW1 Due today HW2 weds 2/10 2.Electron+X-rays 3.Black body radiation 4.Compton Effect 5.Pair Production

2. 3.1Discovery of the X Ray and the Electron 3.2Determination of Electron Charge 3.3Line Spectra (defer to next chapter) 3.4Quantization 3.5Blackbody Radiation 3.6Photoelectric Effect (last lecture) 3.7X-Ray Production 3.8Compton Effect 3.9Pair Production and Annihilation The Experimental Basis of Quantum Theory CHAPTER 3 The Experimental Basis of Quantum Theory 2/8/102 3313 Andrew Brandt

3. 1895 J.J. Thomson’s Discover’s Electron Thomson used an evacuated cathode-ray tube (vacuum tube with a high voltage) to show that the cathode rays were negatively charged particles (electrons) by deflecting them in electric and magnetic fields. Used force equations to determine q/m for electron, charge later determined by Millikan Oil drop experiment 2/8/103 3313 Andrew Brandt

4. Thomson’s method of measuring the ratio of the electron’s charge to mass was to send electrons through a region containing a magnetic field perpendicular to an electric field. Thomson’s Experiment 2/8/104 3313 Andrew Brandt

5. An electron moving through the electric field is accelerated by a force: Electron angle of deflection: The magnetic field deflects the electron against the electric field force. The magnetic field is adjusted until the net force is zero. Charge to mass ratio: Calculation of e/m 2/8/1053313 Andrew Brandt

6. Calculation of the oil drop charge Used an electric field and gravity to suspend a charged oil drop. Mass is determined from Stokes’s relationship of the terminal velocity to the radius and density. Magnitude of the charge on the oil drop. Thousands of experiments showed that there is a basic quantized electron charge. C 2/8/106 3313 Andrew Brandt

7. 3.5: Blackbody Radiation When matter is heated, it emits radiation (visible light, CW blacksmith, Return of King). All objects radiate energy continuously with a frequency that depends on temperature. Ability to radiate related to ability to absorb—thermal equilibrium Black body is ideal object that absorbs all radiation independent of frequency (radiation enters small whole bounces around until absorbed) 2/8/107 3313 Andrew Brandt

8. Rayleigh-Jeans Formula Lord Rayleigh used the classical theories of electromagnetism and thermodynamics to show that the blackbody spectral distribution should be Missed it by that much! The disagreement for small wavelengths (data goes to zero while theory increases with 4 th power!) became known as “the ultraviolet catastrophe” and was one of the outstanding exceptions that classical physics could not explain. 2/8/108 3313 Andrew Brandt

9. Planck assumed that the radiation in the cavity was emitted (and absorbed) by some sort of “oscillators” that were contained in the walls. He used Boltzman’s statistical methods to arrive at the following formula that fit the blackbody radiation data (note exponential damping at small wavelengths!) Planck made two modifications to the classical theory: 1) The oscillators (of electromagnetic origin) can only have certain discrete energies determined by E n = nhf, where n is an integer, f is the frequency, and h is called Planck’s constant. h = 6.6261 × 10 −34 J·s. 2) The oscillators can absorb or emit energy in discrete multiples of the fundamental quantum of energy given by Planck’s Radiation Law Planck’s radiation law 2/8/109 3313 Andrew Brandt

10. Wien’s Displacement Law The intensity (λ, T) is the total power radiated per unit area per unit wavelength at a given temperature. Wien’s displacement law: The maximum of the distribution (from taking derivative with respect to wavelength) shifts to smaller wavelengths as the temperature is increased. Ex: 2.7K cosmic background radiation from Big Bang 1.1 mm microwaves in 1964 sky survey (1978 Nobel prize for Penzias+Wilson) 2/8/1010 3313 Andrew Brandt

11. Stefan-Boltzmann Law Can also use Planck’s formula to derive an expression for the total power radiated increases with the temperature: This is known as the Stefan-Boltzmann law, with the constant σ experimentally measured to be 5.6705 × 10 −8 W / (m 2 · K 4 ). The emissivity є (є = 1 for an idealized blackbody) is simply the ratio of the emissive power of an object to that of an ideal blackbody and is always less than 1. 2/8/1011 3313 Andrew Brandt

12. What is Light? Both wave and particle theory needed. Quantum theory: light has individual photons… but frequency is a wave phenomenon Two different interpretations of intensity Wave theory average magnitude of EM wave over a complete cycle Photon description I=Nh  Both descriptions must give the same intensity if they are valid so Consider double slit experiment: for large N observer looking at screen would see a double slit interference pattern (continuous distribution) However, for small N, see a flash of light as one photon at a time goes through either slit (quantum phenomena), but if you wait a long time you would see an interference pattern How can photon interfere with itself ? (sounds vaguely immoral) 2/8/103313 Andrew Brandt12

13. What is Light (2)? Must conclude that is the probability of finding a photon at a certain place and time—each photon has a wave associated with it; the intensity of wave a given place on the screen determines the likelihood that a photon will arrive there Light travels as a wave, but deposits and absorbs energy like a particle (or a series of particles) Wave-particle duality: need both pictures (outside of our everyday life experience!) It not a wave nor a particle…it’s a WARTICLE 2/8/103313 Andrew Brandt13

14. X-Rays 1895 Roentgen found that when fast moving electrons strike matter a highly penetrating unknown radiation (X-Ray) is produced. He found certain characteristics of X-Rays: they 1) travel in straight lines 2) are unaffected by E+B fields (what does this imply?) 3) can pass through opaque materials 4) can expose photographic plates He also observed that faster electrons yield more penetrating X-Rays and that increasing the number of incident electrons yields higher intensity X-Rays 2/8/103313 Andrew Brandt14

15. More X-Rays Soon it became obvious that X-Rays are EM waves Accelerating charges produce EM waves (basis for radio transmitters) How does an electron produce X-Rays? What happens as an electron interacts with matter? It decelerates: bremsstrahlung (“braking radiation”) Higher atomic number nuclei cause more energetic brem. (energy loss is more important for light particles like electron—NLC) 2/8/103313 Andrew Brandt15

16. Measuring X-Ray Wavelength Scattering of X-Rays off Crystal (draw) Use crystals as a diffraction grating  need crystals since d must be on order of a wavelength ( ) for diffraction effects to be observed and is very small (0.01 to 10 nm) for X-Rays. Small wavelength implies large , so if X-Ray has several orders of magnitude smaller wavelength than light, it has several orders of magnitude higher energy 2/8/103313 Andrew Brandt16 http://www.wwnorton.com/college/chemistry/gilbert/tutorials/ch10.htm

17. Inverse P.E. Effect X-Ray production is an inverse photoelectric effect: electron in/photon out, instead of vice-versa Small wavelength implies large , so if X-Ray has several orders of magnitude smaller wavelength than light, it has several orders of magnitude higher energy For photoelectric effect: For X-Rays can neglect binding energy, since X-Ray is so energetic: where V is the accelerating potential of X-Ray machine and the frequency is maximum when the electron gives all of its energy to a single photon Duane-Hunt formula for X-Ray production: 2/8/103313 Andrew Brandt17 http://www.spineuniverse.com/videos/x-rays/

18. Compton Effect Can photon be treated like a particle when it interacts with an electron? Consider conservation of momentum and energy, and also have an additional constraint that the loss in photon energy yields an equivalent gain in electron KE: 2/8/103313 Andrew Brandt18

19. Compton Effect some math occurs on blackboard yielding: where is called the Compton Wavelength, and has a value of 2.4 pm for electrons this is largest when? Compton scattering is the main way that X-Rays lose energy when passing through matter; visible light has long wavelength so small wavelength shift is less noticeable Experimentally Compton effect initially not verified! The problem was that electrons in matter are not free—some are tightly bound and if whole atom recoils the large mass implies a small wavelength shift (when this is corrected for, the Compton picture is validated) 2/8/103313 Andrew Brandt19

20. Other X-ray stuff http://www.nature.com/news/2009/090728/full/news.2009.744.html http://www.livescience.com/strangenews/reason_demkina_050128.html http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x1z82o_xray-vision_creation 2/8/103313 Andrew Brandt20

21. Pair Production In pair production a photon of sufficient energy can create an electron/positron pair. How much energy? Charge conserved, for energy and momentum conservation need the nucleus (Ex. 2.5) Opposite of pair production is annihilation 2/8/103313 Andrew Brandt21

22. 2/8/103313 Andrew Brandt22 Energy Loss in Matter

23. 2/8/103313 Andrew Brandt23 Photons and Gravity for v=c effective mass of photon, implies light affected by gravity Black hole—so much gravitational force that photons cannot escape