1. Amortized Analysis

2. Problem What is the time complexity of n insert operations into an dynamic array, which doubles its size each time it is completely filled. –for (int i=0; i<n; i++) { insert (i) // O(n) }

3. Problem Until now we analyzed the execution time of such loop as, but not all insert operation do indeed take O(n) We try to find a tighter bound for the execution time of a series of n insert operations

4. Amortized Analysis techniques In amortized analysis we average the time required for a sequence of operations over all the operations performed. Amortized analysis guarantees an average worst case for each operation. The amortized cost per operation is therefore T(n)/n

5. Amortized Analysis techniques The aggregate method –We aggregate the cost of a series of n operations to T(n), then each operation has the same amortized cost of T(n)/n The Accounting method –We can assign different costs to different operations, and charge some operations with more than they actually require, using the obtained credit to reduce from other operation’s cost

6. Amortized Analysis techniques The potential method –We use a potential function, that stores the prepaid operations, like in the accounting method, but associate the potential with the data structure as a whole and not with an individual object

7. The Aggregate method We analyze a series of n push() and pop() stack operations. Since each operation takes constant time, clearly the amortized time for each operation is constant as well. We now introduce a new operation; multipop(k) which calls pop k times.

8. The aggregate method multipop(s,k) { while (! empty(s) && k <>0) { pop(s); k--; } The time complexity is min(s.size(),k)

9. A series of n stack operations: –for (1 … n) { Push Pop Multipop } But not all multipop operations can cost O(n), since after the first multipop the stack is smaller.Each element pushed in the stack can be popped Only once. We can do no more than n push operations in a sequence of n operations, and therefore no more than n pop operations including those executed by multipop. T(n) = O(n) T(n) / n = O(1)

10. A binary counter example Consider the implementation of a binary counter in an array. Counter valueTotal cost 0000000 1000011 2000103 3000114 4001007 5001018 60011010 70011111 80100015

11. A binary counter example Increment(A) i  0 while ( i < length[A] and A[i] = 1) do A[i] = 0 i++ if i < length[A] A[i]  1

12. A binary counter example A straight forward analysis clearly reveals that the worst case increase operation can cost k if k is the number of bits in A. However does a sequence of n increase operations cost n*k ?

13. A binary counter example The least significant bit changes its value n times in a sequence of n increase operations Bit 1 changes its value every other increase operations, thus a total of n/2 times. Bit k changes its value every 2^k increase operations, thus a total of n/k times. The total amount of changes is therefore

14. The Accounting method We assign different costs to each operation Example, Stack ADT –Push = 2 –Pop = 0 –Multipop = 0 We are overcharging the push operation, and then using the credit for pop and multipop. A series of n operations clearly costs at most 2n = O(n), the amortized cost for a single operation is therefore constant

15. The binary counter example We charge flipping a bit into 1 – 2 credits We charge flipping a bit into 0 – 0 credits Each increase operations sets exactly 1 bit to the value 1, therefore it’s amortized cost is 2, or a total of 2n = O(n) for a sequence of n increase operations

16. The Potential method We use the following definitions: Applying the potential function to a data structure at stage i returns the potential of the data structure at the given stage

17. The Potential method The amortized cost of the i’th operation is the actual cost of the i’th operation added to the difference in the potential of the data structure caused by applying that operation The total amortized cost of n operations is

18. The Potential method Since telescopes the amortized costs is actually: We want to find a potential function so that If the potential difference at step i is positive, this represents an overcharge, if it is negative then it represents an undercharge.

19. Example – stack operations The potential function will represent the number of elements in the stack. The amortized cost of a sequence of n elements is therefore

20. The binary counter example