1. Ch. 12 “The Rise of Nationalism”

2. General Notes on Nationalism in Middle East Nationalism is foreign to world of Islam. In traditional Islam, the community of believers was sole object of supreme loyalty, not the state The rise of nationalism meant to some degree: 1.Substituting collective self – love for the love of God 2.Enhancing life on earth as opposed to preparing for what is to come after death 3.Promoting welfare of the community above obeying God’s revealed laws The people of the M.E. developed nationalist feelings as a natural reaction to western power and as a result of western influence

3. Egyptian Nationalism – 19 th Century Khedive Isma’il (r. 1863 – 1879), Mehmet Ali’s grandson spends a lot of loaned $$ modernizing Egypt, sending the country into deep debt In response, Isma’il raises taxes, sells Egypt’s shares in Suez Canal, and takes out more loans Egyptian debt 1863: $3 million pounds Egyptian debt 1879: $93 million pounds

4. Still, Western institutions created under Isma’il drew Egyptians closer together, brought in more European intellectuals, and helped spawn nationalism sentiments Under British and French influence, the Ottoman Sultan dismisses Isma’il. Isma’il’s son, Tawfiq, takes over in 1879 “Isma’il’s financial crisis, which tied Egypt to Western creditors and to their governments, shamed Egyptians” (p.190) Nationalist feelings grew strong in the liberal cabinet, the army, and among religious leaders (al-Afghani & Pan-Islam) Jamal al Din al Afghani, 1883

5. In response, Tawfiq dismisses the cabinet, banned newspapers, and exiled Afghani and other nationalists. Tawfiq restores Dual Economic Control (joint Anglo-French economic administration in Egypt – 1876 to 1882) In Feb. 1881, disgruntled army officers led by Colonel Ahmad Urabi mutinied. Seven months later they force Tawfiq to reappoint a liberal cabinet and create an assembly British don’t like this. They invade in 1882 and easily defeat Urabi’s army. Cabinet was dismissed, nationalists tried for rebellion, Urabi exiled, constitution suspended, army broken up

6. British occupation was supposed to be short…..

7. ….. But it lasts until 1936

8. Lord Cromer is first British agent and consul general to Egypt. He is there from 1883 – 1907 A talented financial administrator, he succeeds in restoring Egypt’s economy There remains strong internal opposition to British rule & Ottoman opposition Lord Cromer

9. Ottoman Nationalism Non-Ottoman nationalism movements rose in the Balkans among the Greeks and Serbs earlier in the 19 th century Reformers within the Ottoman Empire espoused the idea of “Ottomanism” – hence the New Ottomans emerge in the 1870s A constitution is created in 1876, the New Ottomans place Abdulhamid II (r. 1876 – 1909) in power

10. A Russo – Turkish war breaks out in 1877, putting the Ottoman Empire in peril The war was initiated by the Russians in their attempts to help Balkan nationalist movements. Resulted in formal proclamations of independence in Romania, Serbia and Montegro The war prompted Abdulhamid to suspend the constitution and dissolve parliament. Problem is, he refuses to reinstate them once war is over Abdulhamid rules for 30 years as a cruel dictator: suppresses dissident movement, massacres Armenians, destroys freedom of speech and press… he was also personally paranoid of being assassinated Abdulhamid II

11. A secret society known as the Young Turks (or Committee of Union and Progress – CUP) forms. Composed mostly of exiled Ottoman nationalists and internal cells of Ottoman army officials. Goal is to restore constitution and get rid of Abdulhamid Leaders of Young Turks were of Turkish ethnicity, but were backed by other ethnic groups In 1908, a YT army coup forces Abdulhamid to restore the constitution. Parliamentary elections were held and a tide of democracy seemed apparent However, continued help from Russia spawns more disintegration of Ottoman empire’s Eastern European lands: Austria annexes Bosnia; Bulgaria declares independence; Crete rebels; Bulgaria and Serbia attack Macedonia and win; Albania declares independence The Ottoman Empire by 1913 had lost all Eastern European lands, and democracy dissolves with series of military coups

12. Amid disintegration, the Young Turks become more Turkish in composition and ideology Attempts are made at a Pan-Turanic movement – or the banding together of all Turkish peoples from the Ottoman Empire and Central Asia and elsewhere. It fails. So, focus turns to promoting Turkish nationalism in what remained of the Ottoman Empire itself

13. Persian Nationalism Persian nationalism movement rose between 1870 – 1914 Nationalism in Persia mainly a reaction against: 1.Threat of Russian military takeover 2.Growing dependence on the West 3. Divisive effect of tribalism in rural areas

14. Persians are unhappy with Nasiruddin’s concessions to western investors. Further, Nasiruddin was spending foreign loans on palaces, trips abroad and other luxuries Secret societies desiring a constitution rise in the cities An act of perceived injustice by Nasiruddin’s PM in 1906 sparked nationwide riots that culminate in Nasiruddin being forced to adopt a constitution and creating a legislative assembly However, in 1907 Russia and Britain reached an agreement to recognize one another spheres of influence in Persia. The assembly becomes divided and achieves nothing towards forwarding Persian nationalist objectives

15. British company begins oil exploration in SE Persia in 1901; discoveries made in 1908; shipping of oil begins in 1914. For Persian nationalists this is not helpful b/c it is occuring far from Tehran in land controlled by tribal shaykhs and revenues went mainly to British stockholders

16. Conclusions & Afterthoughts “Generally speaking, Middle East nationalist movements fared poorly prior to WWI” (p.201) Urabi is a hero to Egyptians today New Ottomans are revered today in Turkey The 1906 Iranian Constitution remained the legal basis of government until 1979