1. Conditional Probability, Bayes’ Theorem, and Belief Networks CISC 2315 Discrete Structures Spring2010 Professor William G. Tanner, Jr.

2. Conditional probability P(A|B) = the conditional probability of A given that all we know is B. Once we receive some evidence concerning a proposition, prior probabilities are no longer applicable. We need to assess the conditional probability of that proposition given that all we know is the available evidence. e.g., in the picture, P(A) = 0.25; P(B) = 0.5; P(A & B) = 0.25; P(A|B) = 0.5. BB ~B A

3. Example: P(Cavity=true|Toothache=true) = 0.8 is a conditional probability statement. We could also have more evidence, e.g., P(Cavity|Toothache, Earthquake). This evidence could be irrelevant, e.g., P(Cavity|Toothache, Earthquake) = P(Cavity|Toothache) = 0.8. Also, P(Cavity|Toothache, Cavity) = 1. Examples of conditional probabilities

4. Bayes’ Rule Here is the derivation of the rule:

5. The significance of Bayes’ Rule Bayes’ Rule underlies many probabilistic reasoning systems in artificial intelligence (AI). It is useful because, in practice, we often know the probabilities on the right hand side of Bayes’ Rule and wish to estimate the probability on the left.

6. Example of the use of Bayes Rule Bayes’ Rule is particularly useful for assessing disease hypotheses from symptoms: P(Cause|Effect) = P(Effect|Cause) P(Cause) / P(Effect) From knowledge of conditional probabilities on causal relationships in medicine, we can derive probabilities of diagnoses. Let S be the proposition that a patient has a stiff neck, and M the proposition that the patient has meningitis. Suppose we want to know P(M|S). P(S|M)=0.5 P(M)=1/50000 P(S)=1/20 Using Bayes’ Rule, P(M|S)=P(S|M)P(M)/P(S)=0.0002

7. Belief networks Belief networks represent dependence between variables. A belief network B = (V,E) is a directed acyclic graph with nodes V and directed edges E where Each node in V corresponds to a random variable. There is a directed edge from node X to node Y if variable X has a direct influence on variable Y. Each node in V has a conditional probability table (CPT) associated with it. The CPT specifies the conditional distribution of the node given its parents, i.e., P (X i |Parents(X i )). The parents of a node are all those nodes that have arrows pointing to it.

8. A simple belief network Alarm MaryCalls JohnCalls Earthquake Burglary

9. A simple belief net with CPTs Alarm MaryCalls JohnCalls Earthquake Burglary P(B)=0.001 P(E)=0.002 P(A|B,E)=0.95 P(A|B,not E)=0.94 P(A|not B,E)=0.29 P(A|not B, not E)=0.001 P(J|A)=0.9 P(J|not A)=0.05 P(M|A)=0.7 P(M|not A)=0.01

10. An Example We can compute P(Alarm|Burglary), using probabilistic inference (taught in the AI class).

11. A Successful Belief Net Application PATHFINDER is a diagnostic expert system for lymph-node diseases, built by the Stanford Medical Computer Science program in the 1980’s. The system deals with over 60 diseases. Four versions have been built, and PATHFINDER IV uses a belief network. PATHFINDER IV was tested on 53 actual cases of patients referred to a lymph-node specialist, and it scored highly. A recent comparison between medical experts and PATHFINDER IV shows the system outperforming the experts, some of who are among the world’s leading pathologists, and some of who were consulted to build the system in the first place!