1. AP PSYCHOLOGY: UNIT IV How we construct representations of the external world

2. PART ONE Sensation & Perception: The Basics

3. Sensation & Perception: Basics Sensation  The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive stimulus energies (information) from our environment  Stimulus – detectable input from environment  Light – vision  Sound – hearing  Chemicals – taste and smell  Pressure, temperature, pain – touch  Orientation, balance – kinesthetic senses

4. Sensation & Perception: Basics Sensory processes are the initial steps to perception:  Transduction  Process of converting energy of stimulus into neural activity Physical energy Neural signals  Adaptation  Impacts transduction  Constant level of stimulus results in decreased response over time Both perceptual and sensory

5. Sensation & Perception: Basics Perception  The process of selecting and identifying information from the environment  Organizing and interpreting sensory information so we can identify its meaning

7. One continuous process…

8. “The Forest Has Eyes” Bottom-up processing: Identifying a stimulus by analyzing the information available in the external stimulus Top-down processing: Identifying a stimulus by using the knowledge we already possess about the situation – based on expectations or past experiences

9. “The Forest Has Eyes” (Bev Doolittle)

10. Sensation & Perception: Basics Bottom-Up Processing  Analysis that begins with sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information  Focuses on the stimuli entering through our eyes, ears and other senses

11. Sensation & Perception: Basics Top-Down Processing  Information-processing guided by higher- level mental processes; when we construct perceptions by drawing on our experience and expectations

12. Top-Down Processing We perceive by filling the gaps in what we sense.  I _ant ch_co_ate ic_ cr_am. Based on our experiences and schemas.  If you see many old men in glasses, you are more apt to process a picture of an old man (even when you may be in error).

13. Sensation & Perception: Basics Aoccdrnig to rscheearch at Cmabrigde Uinervtisy, it deosn't mttaer in waht oredr the ltteers in a wrod are, the olny iprmoetnt tihng is taht the frist and lsat ltteer be in the rghit pclae. The rset can be a total mses and you can sitll raed it wouthit a porbelm. Tihs is bcuseae the huamn mnid deos not raed ervey lteter by istlef, but the wrod as a wlohe.

14. What if we could sense everything? Life would be overwhelming So we can only take in a window of what is out there. Psychophysics: Relationship between physical characteristics of stimuli and our psychological experiences of them.

15. Sensation & Perception: Thresholds PART TWO What stimuli cross our threshold for conscious awareness? Could you be influenced by stimuli too weak to be perceived? Why are we unaware of unchanging stimuli, like a band-aid on our skin?

16. Sensation & Perception: Thresholds Psychophysics  A study of the relationship between the physical characteristics of stimuli & our psychological experience with them  In other words, how are physical stimuli translate into a psychological experience? Physical WorldPsychological World LightBrightness SoundVolume PressureWeight SugarSweet

17. Sensation & Perception: Thresholds Absolute Threshold  The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time  The dimmest visible star  The softest sound NoYes No Observer’s Response

18. Sensation & Perception: Thresholds SenseAbsolute Threshold VisionA candle flame seen from 30 miles away on a clear, dark night HearingThe tick of a watch at 20 feet in very quiet conditions TasteOne teaspoon of sugar in two gallons of water SmellOne drop of perfume throughout a three-room apartment TouchA bee’s wing falling on your cheek from a height of about 1 cm

19. Sensation & Perception: Thresholds Will you be able to detect a weak stimulus? Signal Detection Theory  Predicts how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (“signal”) amid background stimulation  Assumes that there is NO single absolute threshold and that detection depends on several factors… Person’s experience Expectations Motivations Level of fatigue

20. Sensation & Perception: Thresholds Difference Threshold  Just Noticeable Difference  The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time  How much does the volume have to increase before you can tell that your music has gotten louder?  How much do you have to loosen your shoelaces for them to feel slightly less tight? No Observer’s Response NoYes

21. Just noticeable difference

34. Sensation & Perception: Thresholds Weber’s Law (Ernest Weber)  The principle that two stimuli must differ by a constant proportion for difference to be noticeable  Ratio based on original stimulus, rather than a constant amount Example  If you go from 1 to 2 (JND), then you must go from 2 to 4 and then 3 to 6 to notice the same difference; a FIXED RATIO! How much sweetener does it take to notice a difference in the sweetness of sweet tea? DEPENDS ON THE INITIAL SWEETNESS

35. Weber’s Law In Practice ● If you make $5 an hour a 50 cent hour raise will be noticeable. ● But at $10 an hour you may need $1 to really realize a difference. ● The average person can perceive differences when: ● Light intensifies by 8% ● Weight increases by 2% ● Frequency of tone differs by 0.3%

36. Sensation & Perception: Thresholds Fechner’s Law (Gustav Fechner)  Continuous increases in physical energy will result in smaller increases in perceived magnitude; not a true ratio!  Slight adjustment to Weber’s Law  Eventually we reach a place where physical energy starts to level off and we no longer notice a difference  Lower and upper thresholds Examples?

37. Subliminal Stimulation Stimuli below one’s absolute threshold of conscious awareness. Are subliminal stimuli effective?  Yes & No Slide studies showed some emotional reactivity (called priming a response).  The effects are subtle and fleeting.

38. Subliminal Messages: The Early Years James Vicary claimed to have flashed the words “eat popcorn” and “Drink Coca-Cola” on a movie screen for 1/200 th of a second, every 5 seconds during the movie Picnic. He claimed popcorn sales increased 58% and Coke sales increased 18%. Vicary’s experiment was never successfully replicated He later acknowledged the study was a fraud.

39. Recent Years: Product placement Product placement is a form of supraliminal persuasion Subtle, perhaps, but not subliminal