1. Cellular Structures and Organelles
Laura Fraser Cotlin, Ph.D.
Fundamentals 1 – Dental/Optometry
August 9, 2011

2. A Lymphocyte and a Neuron

3. Organelle Classification
Membrane Bound
Plasma membrane
Nucleus
RER
SER
Golgi Apparatus
Lysosomes
Endosomes
Peroxisomes
Mitochondria
Non-membrane Bound
Ribosomes
Proteasome
Microtubules
Actin Filaments
Intermediate Filaments
Centrioles and Basal Bodies
Cilia, Flagella
Inclusions

4. Schematic of a Polarized Cell

5. Fluid Mosaic Model of the Cell Membrane

6. Functions of Cell Membranes
Maintains structural integrity of the cell
Controls movement of substances in and out of cell
Regulates cell-cell interactions
Serves as a recognition board via receptors
Establishes transport system for specific molecules
Transduces extracellular physical and chemical signals into intracellular events

7. Molecular Composition of Cell Membranes
The Lipid Component
Phospholipids
Glycolipids
Cholesterol
Physical property of lipids forms a bimolecular leaflet. (hydrophobic and hydrophilic components - amphipathic)
The Protein Component
Integral proteins, transmembrane proteins, multipass proteins
Peripheral proteins - extracellular and cytosolic.

8. (cross section of microvilli)
EM of Cell Membrane
(cross section of microvilli)

9. Two important concepts about membranes
Movements of proteins in the membrane
Arrangements of proteins in the membrane

10. Functions of Integral Membrane Proteins

11. Channel Proteins -allow passage of one particular ion -can be: Voltage-gated proteins Ligand-gated proteins Mechanically-gated proteins other Pumps and Carrier Proteins -bind and transport ions and molecules -examples: Na+-K+ pump Ca++ channels glucose transporter

12. Surface Receptors -involved in receptor-mediated endocytosis -serve as signaling molecules which are kinases themselves, or are associated with kinases -serve as signaling molecules which are coupled to G- proteins -cytokine and steroid receptors Linkers and Structural Proteins -involved in cell-cell attachment; cell-matrix attachment -serve as scaffolds for cytoskeleton

13. The Cell Nucleus

14. Structure of the Nucleus

16. EM of the Cell Nucleus

17. Nucleus and Nuclear Envelope

18. Structure of the Nuclear Envelope
The nuclear envelope separates the contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm, thus separating the genetic material from the rest of the cellular milieu.
The nuclear envelope consists is a double membrane (inner and outer) which are joined at the nuclear pore complexes.
The inner membrane associates with a nuclear lamina, the outer membrane becomes contiguous with the endoplasmic reticulum

19. Diagram of the NPC

20. The Nuclear Pore Complex (NPC)
The NPC is a large macromolecule consisting of more than 100 proteins which provides the only route for molecules to travel in and out of the nucleus.
The nuclear pores and associated transport proteins control all ingress and egress of substances to the nucleus.
Small molecules can diffuse freely; macromolecules are selectively transported and require energy.
Larger molecules require a nuclear localization signal (amino acid sequence) to enter nucleus. This signal contains a stretch of several basic amino acids such as lysine and arginine.
RNAs are transported through the NPC as ribonucleoproteins. This transport requires energy provided by ATP hydrolysis
Nuclear shuttle or transport proteins bring substances to the nuclear pore, and tether the substance at the pore. Entry requires energy expenditure.

21. Diagram of the NPC

22. EM of the Nuclear Pore Complex

23. The chromatin material
Heterochromatin: constitutive and facultative: constitutive chromatin remains transcriptionally inactive whereas the facultative form can be de-condensed and transcriptionally active, depending on cell type.
Euchromatin distribution and function. Transcriptionally active DNA, and has some “open” areas that are cell specific.
The interphase nucleus contains both transcriptionally inactive heterochromatin as well as decondensed, transcriptionally active euchromatin.
Major types of proteins located in the nucleus are: histones, fibrous proteins, nuclear matrix, ribosomal proteins, transcription factors.

25. Nucleolus

26. The Nucleolus
The most prominent substructure in the nucleus is the nucleolus.
It is the site of rRNA synthesis and ribosome assembly.
The primary transcript of the rRNA gene is 45S pre- rRNA which is processed to yield the three mature forms of RNA for ribosome construction 18S, 5S and 28S rRNAs.
Small ribosomal proteins (49 for the large subunit and 33 for the small) are made in the cytoplasm and transported to the nucleolus through the nuclear pore complex

27. The functional unit of euchromatin
The functional unit of euchromatin is called the nucleosome.
The nucleosome consists of histone proteins, 2 copies of H2A, H2B, H3 and H4 around which is wrapped 166 DNA base pairs. An additional 48- bp segments form the link between adjacent nucleosomes, and another histone (H1 or H5) binds to this DNA.

28. The Nucleosome

29. Schematic of Chromosome Packaging

30. Another cartoon depicting DNA packaging

32. Ribosomes
Giant macromolecular machines that bring together mRNA and aa- tRNA to synthesize a polypeptide.
Consist of a small subunit and a large subunit that bind together during translation of mRNA.
Each subunit consists of one or more ribosomal RNA (rRNA) molecules and many distinct proteins. In eukaryotes, the large subunit contains ~49 proteins and three different sizes of RNAs ,whereas the small subunit contains ~33 proteins and one RNA molecule.
Ribosomes can be used many times to read mRNA and translate proteins.
Ribosomes can associate with ER membranes if the nascent polypeptide contains a signal sequence.
As many as ribosomes can be on one mRNA. This structure is called a polyribosome.

33. Organization of Ribosomes

36. Location of Protein Synthesis

37. The Secretory Pathway

38. The Endoplasmic Reticulum
A continuous system of flattened membrane stacks and tubules
Site of synthesis of membrane and secretory proteins and lipids of the cell
Continuous with the outer half of the nuclear membrane
ER pumps and channel proteins regulate cytoplasmic calcium concentrations (Ca++ concentration is kept high in the ER.)
ER enzymes metabolize drugs
Ribosomes attach to ER membrane if nascent polypeptide bears a signal sequence
ER is very dynamic. Continuous bidirectional traffic moves small vesicles between ER and Golgi.
ER is of two types, Rough ER and Smooth ER

39. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

42. The ER and Golgi Apparatus

43. The Golgi Complex

44. Activity in the Golgi
Golgi complex has 3 compartments: cis, medial and trans
Proteins are terminally glycosylated here
Proteins are directed to different cellular compartments using specialized targeting signals
All proteins destined for secretion or as membrane proteins pass through the 3 compartments and are posttranslational modified and “packaged” into delivery vesicles that bud from from the trans-golgi network (TGN).
There is a bidirectional flow of vesicles in the Golgi

46. ER and Golgi

47. The Lysosome
Contains degradative enzymes separated from other cellular components by an impermeable membrane
Lysosomal enzymes are synthesized at the RER, transported to Golgi, and contain a phosphorylated mannose on the protein surface which targets them for transport to the lysosome.
Vesicular transport guided by phosphomannose delivers enzyme to lumen of lysosome.
Plasma membrane vesicles called endosomes or phagosomes deliver ingested microorganism to lysosome for destruction.
Deficiencies in lysosomal enzymes cause many congenital disease.

48. Lysosomes

49. Lysosomes

50. Endocytosis and Endosomes

51. Phagocytosis and Phagosomes

52. Peroxisomes
Membrane-bound organelle containing enzymes that participate in oxidative reactions.
Oxidize fatty acids but energy generated is not used to synthesize ATP
Peroxisomal proteins are synthesized in the cytoplasm and transported into the organelle using a specialized targeting amino acid sequence.
Genetic defects in peroxisomal biogenesis cause several forms of mental retardation.

53. Peroxisomes

54. Mitochondria
Double membrane structures containing enzymes that convert energy released from breakdown of nutrients into the synthesis of ATP.
Mitochondria cluster near sites of high ATP utilization (sperm tails, contractile apparatus of muscles, active transport of membranes, nerve terminals).
Mitochondria play key role in response to toxic stimuli by releasing a toxic cocktail of proteins that bring about the death of a cell (apoptosis).
Mitochondria form differently from other organelles, by pinching in two. They do not divide synchronously with cell division.
Mitochondria have their own DNA and protein synthesizing apparatus and make some of their own proteins

55. Mitochondria

56. Organization of Mitochondria

57. Overview of Mitochondrial Functions

58. Mitochondria