1. Revolutions and National States in the Atlantic World
Chapter 28
Revolutions and National States in the Atlantic World
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Popular Sovereignty
Popular sovereignty: relocating sovereignty in the people
Traditionally monarchs claimed a "divine right" to rule
The Enlightenment challenged this right, made the monarch responsible to the people
John Locke's theory of contractual government: authority comes from the consent of the governed
Individuals retain personal rights, give political rights to rulers
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Individual Freedoms
Demands for freedom of worship and freedom of expression and political and legal equality
Jean-Jacques Rousseau ( )
Argues for equality of all individuals, regardless of class, before the law
Equality not extended to women, peasants, laborers, slaves, or people of color
Ideals of Enlightenment were significant global influence
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4. Increased Taxation in 1760s
Bills come due from the Seven Years’ War
Tax burden falls to the colonies
Sugar Act (1764)
Stamp Act (1765)
Quartering Act (1765) (housing of British troops)
Tea Act (1773)
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5. Tension between Britain and NA colonies
Legacy of Seven Years' War: British debt, North American tax burden
Mounting colonial protest over taxes, trade policies, Parliamentary rule
Colonial boycott of British goods and attacks on British officials; Boston Tea Party, 1773
Political protest over representation in Parliament: Continental Congress, 1774
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6. The Declaration of Independence
Continental Congress formed (1774), coordinates colonists’ resistance to British policies
July 4, 1776, adopts Declaration of Independence
Influence of Locke: retention of individual rights, sovereignty based on consent of the ruled
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Revolutionary War
Colonies:
Logistic advantage
Popular support
Support of British rivals
George Washington ( ) provides imaginative military leadership
Britain:
Strong central government
Navy, army
Loyalist population
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8. The American Revolution
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9. Building an Independent State
Constitution guaranteed freedom of press, of speech, and of religion
American republic based on principles of freedom, equality, popular sovereignty
Full legal and political rights were granted only to men of property
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The French Revolution
Financial Crisis: half of government revenue went to national debt
King Louis XVI forced to summon Estates General to raise new taxes
Many representatives wanted sweeping political and social reform
First and Second Estates (nobles, clergy) tried to limit Third Estate (commoners)
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The Estates General
Three Estates
First estate: Roman Catholic clergy
100,000
Second estate: nobles
400,000
Third estate: everyone else
24,000,000 serfs, free peasants, urban residents
Estates General founded 1303, had not met since 1614
One vote per estate
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1789
The National Assembly formed by representative of Third Estate, 17 June 1789
Demanded a written constitution and popular sovereignty
Angry mob seized the Bastille on 14 July, sparked insurrections in many cities
National Assembly wrote the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen"
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13. Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen
August 1789
American influence
Women not included: Olympe de Gouges (Marie Gouze) unsuccessfully attempts to redress this in 1791
Sovereignty resides in the people
Individual rights
Equality of men
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14. Radicalization of Revolution
“Liberty, equality, fraternity”
National Assembly abolishes old social order
Seizes church lands, redefines clergy as civilians
New constitution retains king, but subject to legislative authority
Convention: elected by universal male suffrage
Levée en masse: conscription for war
1793: King Louis and Queen Marie Antoinette found guilty of treason and sent to guillotine
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15. Maximilien Robespierre (1758-1794)
“The Incorruptible,” leader of Committee of Public Safety
Churches closed, priests forced to marry
Promoted “cult of reason” as secular alternative to Christianity
Calendar reorganized: Ten-day weeks, proclaimed Year I
Executed 40,000; imprisoned 300,000
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16. Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821)
Brilliant military leader; became a general in the royal army at age twenty-four
Supported the revolution; defended the Directory
Overthrew the Directory and named himself consul for life
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Napoleonic France
Napoleonic France brought stability after years of chaos
Made peace with the Roman Catholic church and pope
Extended freedom of religion to Protestants and Jews
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Napoleon’s Empire
Napoleon's empire: 1804, proclaimed himself emperor
Dominated the European continent: Iberia, Italy, Netherlands
Defeated Austria and Prussia; fought British on high seas
Disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812 destroyed Grand Army
The fall of Napoleon
Forced by coalition of enemies to abdicate in 1814, exiled on Elba
Escaped, returned to France, raised army, but was defeated by British in 1815
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Napoleon’s Empire in 1812
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20. The Revolution in Haiti
Rich Caribbean colony: Sugar, coffee, cotton
Society dominated by small white planter class
90 percent of population were slaves working under brutal conditions
Large communities of escaped slaves, or maroons
Free blacks fought in American war, brought back revolutionary ideas
Widespread discontent: white settlers sought self-governance, slaves wanted freedom
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21. François-Dominique Toussaint (1744-1803)
Son of slaves, literate, skilled organizer, built a strong and disciplined army
Controlled most of Saint-Domingue by 1797, created a constitution in 1801
Arrested by French troops; died in jail, 1803
The Republic of Haiti
Yellow fever ravaged French troops; defeated and driven out by slave armies
Declared independence in 1803; established the Republic of Haiti in 1804
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22. Latin American Society
Latin American society rigidly hierarchical
Social classes: peninsulares, creoles, slaves, and indigenous peoples
Creoles sought to displace the peninsulares but retain their privileged position
30,000 peninsulares, 3.5 million criollos
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Mexican Independence
Napoleon’s invasion of Spain and Portugal (1807) weakens royal authority in colonies
Priest Miguel de Hidalgo ( ) leads revolt
Hidalgo captured and executed, but rebellion continues
1822 Mexico is a republic
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Simón Bolívar ( )
Simon Bolivar ( ) led independence movement in South America
Inspired by George Washington, took arms against Spanish rule in 1811
Creole forces overcame Spanish armies throughout South America, 1824
Bolivar's effort of creating the Gran Colombia failed in 1830s
Creole dominance in Latin America
Independence brought little social change in Latin America
Principal beneficiaries were creole elites
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Latin America in 1830
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26. The End of the Slave Trade
Movements to end slave trade: began in 1700s, gained momentum during revolutions
In 1807 British Parliament outlawed slave trade
Other states followed suit, though illegal slave trade continued from some time
Movements to abolish slavery: more difficult because of property rights
In Haiti and much of South America, end of slavery came with independence
In Europe and North America, campaign against slave trade became campaign to abolish slavery
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27. Enlightenment Ideals and Women
Enlightenment thinkers remained conservative regarding women’s rights
Rousseau argues women should receive education to prepare for lives as wives and mothers
Mary Astell (England, ) argues that women essentially born into slavery
Mary Wollstonecraft (England, )
women possessed same natural rights as men
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Women and Revolution
Women active in all phases of French revolution
Women storm Versailles in 1789, demands for food
Yet hold few official positions of authority
Yet women not allowed to vote, major task of nineteenth century
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29. The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)
Conservative leaders determined to restore old order after defeat of Napoleon
Succeeded in maintaining balance of power in Europe for a century
Failed in repressing nationalist and revolutionary ideas
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30. Nationalist Rebellions
Nationalist rebellions against old order throughout nineteenth century
Greek rebels overcame Ottoman rule in 1827
1830 and 1848, rebellions in France, Spain, Portugal, and German states
Conservative government usually restored afterward but ideals persisted
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31. Unifications of Italy and Germany
Cavour and Garibaldi united Italy by 1870
Cavour led nationalists and expelled Austrian authorities in northern Italy, 1859
Garibaldi controlled southern Italy, 1860
Prussian prime minister Otto von Bismarck ( ) created a united Germany
In Germany, nationalist rebellion was repressed in 1848
Bismarck provoked three wars that swelled German pride
1871, Prussian king proclaimed emperor of the Second Reich
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32. Unifications of Italy and Germany
Otto von Bismarck ( ) advances Realpolitik (“the politics of reality”), uses wars with neighbors to unify Germany
Second Reich proclaimed in 1871 (Holy Roman Empire the first), King Wilhelm I named emperor
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33. The Unification of Italy and Germany
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