2. Memory persistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information Any indication learning has persisted over time Flashbulb Memory a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

3. Three Memory Processes: Encoding Storage Retrieval

4. Encoding the processing of information into the memory system (using your senses) Storage the retention of encoded information over time Ranges from a few seconds to much longer Retrieval process of getting information out of memory Ease of retrieval depends on how efficiently it was encoded and stored.

5. Sensory Memory Some memory is lost because it is not encoded Short-Term Memory More Memory is lost because it is not encoded Long-Term Memory Some information is lost due to retrieval failure

6. Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory Capacity Virtually everything you see or hear at one instant About 7 items in healthy adults Vast; uncountable Duration Fraction of a second Less than 20 seconds if not rehearsed Perhaps a lifetime Example You see something for an instant and then someone asks you to recall one detail. You look up a telephone number and remember it long enough to dial it. You remember the house you lived in when you were 7 years old.

7.  Split-second holding tank, holds info less than a second  Demonstrated by George Sperling  Flashed a grid of nine letters for 1/20 th of a second, participants could recall either the top, middle, or bottom rows perfectly  Tone (high, medium, or low) used as a cue as to what row to remember  Entire grid is held in memory for a split second QL5 3PX T7V

8.  Iconic- visual  Echoic-auditory (slightly longer- 3-4 seconds)  Most of the information is never encoded- selective attention  What we are attending to or what we consider to be important  Cocktail party phenomenon

9. Short Term Memory (STM) activated memory that holds a few items briefly Everything we are currently thinking about Sometimes called working memory look up a phone number, then quickly dial before the information is forgotten Long Term Memory (LTM) the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

10. Permanent memory, unlimited capacity Can decay or fade Episodic Memories of specific events Semantic General knowledge of the world, stored as facts, meanings, and categories Procedural Memories of skills and how to perform them; might be complicated to explain in words

11. External events Sensory memory Short-term memory Long-term memory Sensory input Attention to important or novel information Encoding Retrieving

12. Automatic Processing unconscious encoding of incidental information space time frequency well-learned information word meanings we can learn automatic processing reading backwards

13. Effortful Processing requires attention and conscious effort Rehearsal conscious repetition of information to maintain it in consciousness to encode it for storage

14. Alternate way to think about memory Elaborately (Deeply) Processed- will likely to be remembered later, more time spent studying Maintenance (Shallowly) Processed- will be forgotten quickly (cramming) Explains why we remember stories better than simple repetition

15. Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables TUV ZOF GEK WAV the more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2 Spacing Effect distributed practice yields better long term retention than massed practice Aka- cramming is not as effective!

16. Also called the primary-recency effect We tend to remember the first and the last items on a list and forget those in the middle.

18. Imagery mental pictures a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding Mnemonics memory aids especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devicesuse of acronyms HOMES- Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior PEMDAS- Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally

20. 1776149218121941

21. Chunking organizing items into familiar, manageable units like horizontal organization- 1776149218121941 often occurs automatically DOES NOT help with long term memory, instead increases the amount of information in STM- “increases the magic number 7”

22. Sensory Memory the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system Iconic Memory a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second Registration of exact representation of a scene Echoic Memory momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

23. Short Term Memory limited in duration and capacity “magical” number 7+/-2

24. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 369121518 Time in seconds between presentation of contestants and recall request (no rehearsal allowed) Percentage who recalled consonants

25. How does storage work? Karl Lashley (1950) rats learn maze lesion cortex test memory Proved memories weren’t stored in specific places

26. Synaptic changes Long-term Potentiation increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation When learning occurs, more neurotransmitter is released into the synapse, neurons become more efficient Alcohol can disrupt memory formation by disrupting this process Strong emotions make for stronger memories some stress hormones boost learning and retention

27. Amnesia- the loss of memory Explicit Memory memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare Hippocampus- neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage AKA declarative

28. Implicit Memory- Cerebellum retention without conscious recollection Procedural memories motor and cognitive skills dispositions- conditioning

29. Types of long-term memories Explicit (declarative) With conscious recall Implicit (nondeclarative) Without conscious recall Facts-general knowledge (“semantic memory”) Personally experienced events (“episodic memory”) Skills-motor and cognitive Dispositions- classical and operant conditioning effects

30. MRI scan of hippocampus (in red) Hippocampus LT Stress- It can shrink!

31. Recall the ability to retrieve info learned earlier and not in conscious awareness- like fill in the blank test Recognition the ability to identify previously learned items-like on a multiple choice test

32. Relearning amount of time saved when relearning previously learned information Priming activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

33. Reminders of information we could not otherwise recall Guides to where to look for info Context Effects memory works better in the context of original learning Hearing a song Being in the same classroom

34. Mood Congruent Memory tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood memory, emotions or moods serve as retrieval cues State Dependent Memory what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same state

35. Forgetting as encoding failure Information never enters the memory system Attention is selective we cannot attend to everything in our environment

36. Forgetting as encoding failure Which penny is the real thing?

37. Ebbinghaus- forgetting curve over 30 days initially rapid, then levels off with time 123451015202530 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 Time in days since learning list Percentage of list retained when relearning

38. The forgetting curve for Spanish learned in school Retention drops, then levels off 1 3 5 9½ 14½ 25 35½ 49½ Time in years after completion of Spanish course 100% 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Percentage of original vocabulary retained

39. Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information Proactive(forward acting) Interference disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information

40. Retroactive Interference Without interfering events, recall is better After sleep After remaining awake 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Hours elapsed after learning syllables 90% 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Percentage of syllables recalled

41. Sensory memory - the senses momentarily register amazing detail Short term memory - a few items are both noticed and encoded Long-term storage - Some items are altered or lost Retrieval from long-term memory - depending on interference, retrieval cues moods and motives, some things get retrieved, some don’t Information bits Forgetti ng can occur at any memory stage Forgetti ng can occur at any memory stage

42. Motivated Forgetting people unknowingly revise history Repression defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories Positive Transfer sometimes old information facilitates our learning of new information knowledge of Latin may help us to learn French

43. We filter information and fill in missing pieces Misinformation Effect incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event Source Amnesia attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution)

44. People fill in memory gaps with plausible guesses and assumptions Imagining events can create false memories

45. Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned Depiction of actual accident Leading question: “About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?” Memory construction

46. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KrrNkY7G7_4