2. BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Prof. Elizabeth M. Role, Ph. D. Prof. Elizabeth M. Role, Ph. D.

3. Sources of Answers to Questions A. Familiar Sources 1. Tradition refers to how we collectively have judged, reasoned, and behaved in the past. 2. Authority opinions of insightful experts who know what is best (we hope!).

4. 3. Common sense human reason B. Less Familiar Sources I. Scientific Method Specific strategy used to answer questions and resolve problems. Focuses on discovering valid facts and relationships.

5. What are facts? Facts depend on observation and accurate measurement. Facts are not truth. Facts are merely agreements concerning observations made by impartial people who are judged to be competent to observe.

6. Described his concept of the scientific method as a procedure for thinking more objectively in 1938 John Dewey American philosopher Steps in Scientific Method 1. Clarify the main question inherent in the problem. 2. State a hypothesis. a possible answer to the question

7. 3. Collect, analyze, and interpret information related to the question and hypothesis. 4. Form conclusions derived from the information analyzed. 5. Use the conclusions to verify or reject the hypothesis. II. Research Comes from the French rechercher (to search after or to investigate)

8. Research A careful, systematic, and patient investigation undertaken to discover or establish facts and relationships. Called for when one is confronted with a question or problem that has no readily available answer. Is not: a. mere information gathering b. merely rummaging for information

9. Research is not: c. mere transportation of facts from one location to another d. a catchword used to get attention Years of research have produced a new car wash! Give your car a miracle shine with soapy suds!

10. Characteristics of true research: a. originates with a question in the mind of the researcher. b. cannot proceed without a clear articulation of goal. c. requires a specific plan of procedure. d. usually considers the principal area of investigation (the problem) by dividing it into more manageable sub-areas (sub- problems).

11. e. seeks direction through appropriate hypotheses based upon obvious assumptions. f. deals with facts and their meaning. g. is circular (creates more problems as avenue for the discovery of truth). Elements of research a. Systematic search b. Adequate information

12. Elements of research c. Objective knowledge d. Specific topic Errors in research a. hurriedness b. inaccuracy c. carelessness

13. Value of research a. Learning to do research teaches students how to recognize a problem and how to go about solving it. b. Writing a research paper can teach a student far more than a teacher could. c. Preparing a quality research paper teaches skills of observations, analysis, synthesis and judgment.

14. d. The writing of a research paper helps develop character: sticking with the work in spite of difficulties is a discipline that enhances the worth of any student. e. The preparation of a research paper gives opportunity for the development of good writing skills. f. Satisfaction of a job accomplished and the joy of discovery.

15. GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF RESEARCH I. Legal Principles Rule 1. Protection To protect individuals against physical, mental, or emotional harm. Research should not place individuals in physical danger, nor does it permit inquiry, without advised consent of the participant involved, into personal matters considered sensitive in nature.

16. Rule 2. Confidentiality Without express permission to the contrary, the anonymity of human participants who participate in research is to be maintained. II. Ethical Principles Rule 3. Beneficence Research is done to garner knowledge and shed light on the human condition. The researcher’s aim is to increase understanding and to promote opportunity and advancement for the population at large.

17. Rule 4. Honesty Data should be reported exactly as obtained. No data are to be suppressed, no alterations made in them, and no exceptions made in the procedures by which they are collected. Dishonest manipulation of data is inexcusable and renders the research meaningless or dangerously misleading.

18. Rule 5. Accurate Disclosure Individuals selected to serve as participants in research must be informed accurately about the general topic of research and any unusual procedures or tasks in which they will be involved. Full disclosure, providing participants with all the details of the research, would introduce the possibility of error that might render the research invalid.

19. III. Philosophical Principles Rule 6. Importance Research findings should contribute to human knowledge or be useful elsewhere. Research must show promise of being worth the time, effort, and expenditures entailed. Rule 7. Generalizability The findings of research can be applied, or generalized, to other individuals and settings. This principle does not apply to historical research or action research.

20. Rule 8. Replicability A prime means of establishing research credibility. Research is made replicable (repeatable) by keeping records of exactly what was done, and why, in each phase of the investigation. Rule 9. Probability Research deals in probabilities, likelihoods, or the best answers among a variety of possibilities.

21. Research conclusions hinge not on absolute certainty but on probability. There must be a strong probability that if the research were repeated numerous times, the findings would almost always be approximately the same. IV. Procedural Principles Rule 10. Researchability A preliminary test of researchability includes our questions:

22. a. Can the scientific method be used to investigate the topic under consideration? b. If no, can the topic be limited or reworded to make it researchable? c. If the topic statement is, or can be made, researchable through the scientific method, is it possible to obtain required data? d. Can the topic be investigated within existing constraints of time, facilities, distance, money, and other practical matters?

23. Rule 11. Parsimony The simpler a theory is, the better it is, provided it adequately explains the phenomena involved. Research should be guided by questions or hypotheses stated as clearly and simply as possible. Findings resulting from data analysis should be reported clearly and the conclusions stated succinctly.

24. Rule 12. Credibility The principle of credibility is established as follows: a. The topic selected must be significant and researchable. b. The operating principles of research must be adhered to. c. Reliable and valid data must be obtained. d. Appropriate methods must be used to analyze the data.

25. e. Findings must be supported by the data. f. Conclusions related to research questions or hypotheses must be logically persuasive and reported clearly and accurately. Rule 13. Rival Explanations Researchers should always anticipate that others will scrutinize their methods and make interpretations different from their own.

26. Measures to forestall criticism ad other possible interpretations: following procedures properly, accounting for undesired influences, analyzing data appropriately, pinpointing possible bias, foreseeing and ruling out alternative interpretations. If alternate possibilities cannot be explained, they can be acknowledged in discussions of the findings.