1. Essentials of The Living World First Edition GEORGE B. JOHNSON Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display PowerPoint ® Lectures prepared by Johnny El-Rady 6 How Cells Acquire Energy

2. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display 6.1 An Overview of Photosynthesis Photosynthesis is the process that captures light energy and transforms into the chemical energy of carbohydrates It occurs in the Plasma membranes of some bacteria Cells of algae Leaves of plants

3. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Fig. 6.1 Journey into a leaf

4. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Fig. 6.1 Journey into a leaf

5. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Photosynthesis takes place in three stages: 1. Capturing energy from sunlight 2. Using energy to make ATP and NADPH 3. Using ATP and NADPH to power the synthesis of carbohydrates from CO 2 Light-dependent reactions Light-independent reactions The Calvin cycle 6 CO 2 carbon dioxide + 12 H 2 O water + Light energy C 6 H 12 O 6 glucose + 6 O 2 oxygen + 6 H 2 O water

6. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display All three stages occur in the chloroplast Fig. 6.1 Journey into a leaf (continued) Contain the pigment chlorophyll, which captures light

7. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display 6.2 How Plants Capture Energy from Sunlight Light consists of tiny packets of energy called photons Sunlight contains photons of many energy levels High energy photons have lower wavelength than low energy photons The full range of these photons is called the electromagnetic spectrum

8. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Fig. 6.2 Photons of different energy: the electromagnetic spectrum

9. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Are molecules that absorb light energy The pigment in human eyes is retinal Absorption: ~ 380 (violet) – 750 (red) nm The main pigment in plants is chlorophyll Chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b Have slight differences in absorption spectra Carotenoids are accessory pigments They capture wavelengths not efficiently absorbed by chlorophyll Pigments

10. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Fig. 6.4 Absorption spectra of chlorophylls and carotenoids

11. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Fig. 6.5 Fall colors are produced by pigments such as carotenoids

12. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display 6.3 Organizing Pigments into Photosystems Chlorophyll is embedded in a protein complex in the thylakoid membrane Fig. 6.6 This pigment-protein complex forms the photosystem

13. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display 6.3 Organizing Pigments into Photosystems The light-dependent reactions take place in five stages 1. Capturing light 2. Exciting an electron 3. Electron transport 4. Making ATP 5. Making NADPH

14. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Fig. 6.7 How a photosystem works Excitation energy is transferred between molecules Lost electron is replaced by one from water breakdown

15. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display P 680 Reaction center Water- splitting enzyme Photosystem IPhotosystem II Energy of electrons P 700 Reaction center Electron transport system Fig. 6.8 Plants use two photosystems that occur in series Process is called noncyclic photophosphorylation Photon Excited reaction center e–e– Electron transport system H+H+ Proton gradient formed for ATP synthesis ATP Photon Excited reaction center e–e– NADP + + H + NADPH e- transport system

16. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display 6.4 How Photosystems Convert Light to Chemical Energy The antenna complex of photosystem II first captures the photons It generates a high-energy electron that is passed through an electron transport system This drives the synthesis of ATP The electron is then transferred to photosystem I It gets an energy boost from another photon of light It is passed through another electron transport system This drives the synthesis of NADPH

17. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Fig. 6.9 The photosynthetic electron transport system Stroma Thylakoid space Thylakoid membrane Photosystem IPhotosystem II Electron transport system Water-splitting enzyme H2OH2O 1/2 O2O2 2H + Antenna complex e-e- Photon H+H+ e-e- e-e- e-e- H+H+ NADP + + NADPH Proton gradient Light-dependent reactions Thylakoid space NADPH ATP Calvin cycle NADP + picks up two electrons and a proton to become NADPH

18. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Fig. 6.10 Chemiosmosis in a chloroplast Thylakoid space Photosystem IIATP synthase Electron transport system Photon H2OH2O ½O2½O2 e–e– H+H+ 2 H+H+ H+H+ H+H+ H+H+ H+H+ H+H+ H+H+ ADPATP Light-dependent reactions Thylakoid space NADPH ATP Calvin cycle Membrane is impermeable to protons

19. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display 6.5 Building New Molecules Light-dependent reactions provide the raw material 1. ATP serves as the source of energy Provided by photosystem II 2. NADPH provides the reducing power Provided by photosystem I The Calvin Cycle (C 3 photosynthesis) is the pathway that assembles the new molecules It takes place in the stroma of the chloroplast

20. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Fig. 6.11 How the Calvin cycle works 1 RuBP (Starting material) 3 3-phospho- glycerate P 6 CO 2 3 2 3-phosphoglycerate P 6 Glucose NADPH6 ATP6 Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate P 6 P Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate 1 3 ATP3 RuBP (Starting material) 3 P 5 Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate Carbon dioxide is “fixed” into a three carbon molecule Hence, C 3 photosynthesis It takes six turns of the cycle to make one molecule of glucose

21. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Fig. 6.12 The Calvin cycle

22. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display In hot weather, plants have trouble with C 3 photosynthesis This leads to photorespiration 6.5 Building New Molecules O 2 is now consumed and CO 2 is produced as a by-product This decreases the photosynthetic yields Fig. 6.13

23. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Some plants decrease photorespiration by performing C 4 photosynthesis 6.5 Building New Molecules Fig. 6.14a CO 2 is fixed initially into a four-carbon molecule It is later broken down to regenerate CO 2

24. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display C 4 plants Examples: Sugarcane, corn CO 2 fixation and the Calvin cycle are separated in space, occurring in two different cells CAM plants Examples: Cacti, pineapples Initial CO 2 fixation is called crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) CO 2 fixation and the Calvin cycle are separated in time, occurring in two different parts of the day The C 4 pathway is used by two types of plants

25. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Fig. 6.14b CAM plant pathways are separated temporally C 4 plant pathways are separated spatially

26. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display 6.6 An Overview of Cellular Respiration Cellular respiration is the harvesting of energy from breakdown of organic molecules produced by plants The overall process may be summarized as 6 CO 2 carbon dioxide (heat or ATP) + energy C 6 H 12 O 6 glucose + 6 O 2 oxygen + 6 H 2 O water Cellular respiration is carried out in two stages: 1. Glycolysis 2. Oxidation Occurs in the cytoplasm Occurs in the mitochondria

27. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Fig. 6.16 An overview of aerobic respiration Oxygen is the terminal electron acceptor in aerobic respiration

28. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display 6.7 Using Coupled Reactions to Make ATP Glycolysis is the first stage in cellular respiration Takes place in the cytoplasm Occurs in the presence or absence of oxygen Involves ten enzyme-catalyzed reactions These convert the 6-carbon glucose into two 3-carbon molecules of pyruvate

29. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Fig. 6.17 How glycolysis works 1 6-carbon glucose (Starting material) 6-carbon sugar diphosphate PP 2ATP Priming reactions 2 6-carbon sugar diphosphate PP 3-carbon sugar phosphate P 3-carbon sugar phosphate P Cleavage reactions 3 3-carbon pyruvate 3-carbon pyruvate NADH ATP2 3-carbon sugar phosphate P 3-carbon sugar phosphate P NADH ATP2 Energy-harvesting reactions

30. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Fig. 6.18 Glycolysis

31. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Fig. 6.18 Glycolysis This coupled reaction is called substrate-level phosphorylation

32. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display The use of inorganic terminal electron acceptors other than oxygen Anaerobic Respiration OrganismTEAReduced Product Methanogens Sulfur bacteria CO 2 Archaea CH 4 Methane SO 4 Sulfate H2SH2S Hydrogen sulfide

33. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display The use of organic terminal electron acceptors The electrons carried by NADH are donated to a derivative of pyruvate This allows the regeneration of NAD + that keeps glycolysis running Two types of fermentation are common among eukaryotes Lactic fermentation Ethanolic fermentation Fermentation

34. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Fig. 6.19 Pyruvate is oxidized Pyruvate is reduced Occurs in animal muscle cells Occurs in yeast cells

35. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display 6.8 Harvesting Electrons from Chemical Bonds The oxidative stage of aerobic respiration occurs in the mitochondria It begins with the conversion of pyruvate into acetyl coA Depending on needs Fig. 6.20

36. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display 6.8 Harvesting Electrons from Chemical Bonds Substrate is oxidized NAD + is reduced Fig. 6.21 How NAD + works

37. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Takes place in the mitochondria It consists of nine enzyme-catalyzed reactions that can be divided into three stages Stage 1 Acetyl coA binds a four-carbon molecule producing a six-carbon molecule Stage 2 Two carbons are removed as CO 2 Stage 3 The four-carbon starting material is regenerated The Krebs Cycle

38. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Fig. 6.22 How the Krebs cycle works 1 CoA– (Acetyl-CoA) 4-carbon molecule (Starting material) 6-carbon molecule 2 6-carbon molecule 4-carbon molecule 5-carbon molecule NADH CO 2 ATP CO 2 3 NADH FADH 2 4-carbon molecule (Starting material) 4-carbon molecule

39. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Fig. 6.23 The Krebs cycle

40. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display

41. Glucose is entirely consumed in the process of cellular respiration It is converted to six molecules of CO 2 Its energy is preserved in Four ATP molecules Ten NADH electron carriers Two FADH 2 electron carriers Fate of Glucose

42. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display The NADH and FADH 2 carry their high-energy electrons to the inner mitochondrial membrane There they transfer them to a series of membrane- associated carriers – the electron transport chain Three of these carriers are protein complexes that pump protons out of the matrix The electrons are finally donated to oxygen to form water 6.9 Using the Electrons to Make ATP

43. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Fig. 6.24 The electron transport chain Intermembrane space Mitochondrial matrix Inner mitochondrial membrane Protein complex I Protein complex II Protein complex III FADH 2 NADH H+H+ H+H+ e–e– + H+H+ H+H+ NAD + e–e– H2OH2O 2H + + ½ O 2 NADH activates all three pumps FADH 2 activates only two pumps

44. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display The proton pumps lead to an increase in proton concentration in the intermembrane space The proton gradient induces the protons to reenter the matrix through ATP synthase channels The proton reentry drives the synthesis of ATP by chemiosmosis Fig. 6.25

45. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Mitochondrial matrix Intermembrane space Pyruvate from cytoplasm NADH Acetyl-CoA FADH 2 NADH Krebs cycle ATP 2 CO 2 e–e– e–e– 1. Electrons are harvested and carried to the transport system. e–e– 2. Electrons provide energy to pump protons across the membrane. H+H+ H+H+ H+H+ O2O2 O2O2 1212 H2OH2O 3. Oxygen joins with protons to form water. + 2H + H+H+ ATP32 4. Protons diffuse back in, driving the synthesis of ATP. ATP synthase Fig. 6.26 An overview of the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis

46. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Food sources, other than sugars, can be used in cellular respiration These complex molecules are first digested into simpler subunits These subunits are modified into intermediates These intermediates enter cellular respiration at different steps Other Sources of Energy

47. Copyright ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display Fig. 6.27 How cells obtain energy from foods