1. Negativity in campaign advertising

2. Why do candidates go negative? “Because it works” – Campaign consultants are almost unanimous on this – However, the scientific evidence does not support this conclusion Lau & Rovner, 2009

3. What kinds of negative presentations are there? Attack ads – Simply denigrating the opposition Comparison ads – Compare candidates to the detriment of the opposition Response ads – Respond to opponent attacks

4. Attack ads Attack upon opponent – Issue/position based – Character based Basis of attack – Link to disliked person/institution – Vote on policy/statement made earlier – Corruption, self-aggrandizement – Personality trait, etc.

5. Commonly included Quotes from authoritative sources Tie-ins to disliked pols, etc. Exaggerated/misleading/false claims Target candidate statements taken out of context Metaphors for sleaziness, etc. Questions rather than statements – Implications without definitive claims

6. Denigrating language – Character-related – Ideological

7. Third parties Often the harshest, most questionable ads come from third parties – Thought to reduce backlash against preferred candidate

8. Comparison ads Usually issue-based – May identify character flaw and show how it differs from own candidate Often exaggerate or misrepresent differences/positions Do inform electorate of real differences

9. Comparison Usually start with negative presentation of opponent (including b/w, ominous or dour music, etc.) then turn to bright, cheerful, hopeful presentation of hero who will fix the problem, right the wrong, etc.

10. Response ads Failure to respond quickly is seen as a critical mistake – Dukakis – Kerry Attack the specific claim Shame the opponent Point out hypocrisy if you can Admit to the unavoidable

11. Production tricks Black and White Shot-reverse shot – Candidate confronts himself Slow motion Dirge-like music Newspapers/other supers – Quotes (usually snippets taken out of context)

12. Use of short videos of candidate being attacked Visual connection between candidate and disliked person/group/organization Placing hats, etc. on opposition candidate Sound – Background music – Voiceover – Recorded voice of candidates – Voices of others in spot – SFX