1. Michael Moll (CERN/PH)  Silicon Tracking Detectors at LHC  Motivation to study radiation hardness  Radiation Damage in Silicon Detectors  Approaches to obtain radiation hard sensors  Silicon Sensors for the LHC Upgrade (present status)  Summary and Outlook OUTLINE 1 st EIROforum School on Instrumentation CERN, 11-15 May 2009 Radiation Hardness of Solid State Tracking Detectors - Radiation Damage & Recent Developments -

2. Michael Moll – ESI 2009, 14.May.2009 -2- LHC example: CMS inner tracker 5.4 m 2.4 m Inner Tracker Outer Barrel (TOB) Inner Barrel (TIB) End Cap (TEC) Inner Disks (TID) CMS – “Currently the Most Silicon”  Micro Strip:  ~ 214 m 2 of silicon strip sensors, 11.4 million strips  Pixel:  Inner 3 layers: silicon pixels (~ 1m 2 )  66 million pixels (100x150  m)  Precision: σ(rφ) ~ σ(z) ~ 15  m  Most challenging operating environments (LHC) CMS Pixel 93 cm 30 cm Pixel Detector Total weight12500 t Diameter15m Length21.6m Magnetic field4 T

3. Michael Moll – ESI 2009, 14.May.2009 -3- Motivation for R&D on Radiation Tolerant Detectors: Super - LHC LHC upgrade  LHC (2009) L = 10 34 cm -2 s -1  (r=4cm) ~ 3·10 15 cm -2  Super-LHC (2018 ?) L = 10 35 cm -2 s -1  (r=4cm) ~ 1.6·10 16 cm -2 LHC ( Replacement/new components) e.g. - LHCb Velo detectors - ATLAS Pixel IB-layer 5 years 2500 fb -1 10 years 500 fb -1  5 5 SLHC compared to LHC:  Higher radiation levels  Higher radiation tolerance needed!  Higher multiplicity  Higher granularity needed! Power Consumption ? Cooling ? Connectivity Low mass ? Costs ?  Need for new detectors & detector technologies 

4. Michael Moll – ESI 2009, 14.May.2009 -4- Signal degradation for LHC Silicon Sensors Note: Measured partly under different conditions! Lines to guide the eye (no modeling)! Strip sensors: max. cumulated fluence for LHC Pixel sensors: max. cumulated fluence for LHC

5. Michael Moll – ESI 2009, 14.May.2009 -5- Signal degradation for LHC Silicon Sensors Note: Measured partly under different conditions! Lines to guide the eye (no modeling)! Strip sensors: max. cumulated fluence for LHC and SLHC Pixel sensors: max. cumulated fluence for LHC and SLHC SLHC will need more radiation tolerant tracking detector concepts!

6. Michael Moll – ESI 2009, 14.May.2009 -6- Outline  Silicon Tracking Detectors at LHC  Motivation to study radiation hardness  Radiation Damage in Silicon Detectors  Microscopic defects (changes in silicon bulk material)  Macroscopic damage (changes in detector properties)  Approaches to obtain radiation hard sensors  Silicon Sensors for the LHC upgrade  Summary

7. Michael Moll – ESI 2009, 14.May.2009 -7- Radiation Damage – Microscopic Effects particle Si S Vacancy + Interstitial point defects (V-O, C-O,.. ) point defects and clusters of defects E K >25 eV E K > 5 keV V I I I V V  Spatial distribution of vacancies created by a 50 keV Si-ion in silicon. (typical recoil energy for 1 MeV neutrons) van Lint 1980 M.Huhtinen 2001

8. Michael Moll – ESI 2009, 14.May.2009 -8- Radiation Damage – Microscopic Effects particle Si S Vacancy + Interstitial point defects (V-O, C-O,.. ) point defects and clusters of defects E K >25 eV E K > 5 keV V I  Neutrons (elastic scattering)  E n > 185 eV for displacement  E n > 35 keV for cluster  60 Co-gammas  Compton Electrons with max. E   1 MeV (no cluster production)  Electrons  E e > 255 keV for displacement  E e > 8 MeV for cluster Only point defects point defects & clusters Mainly clusters 10 MeV protons 24 GeV/c protons 1 MeV neutrons Simulation: Initial distribution of vacancies in (1  m) 3 after 10 14 particles/cm 2 [Mika Huhtinen NIMA 491(2002) 194]

9. Michael Moll – ESI 2009, 14.May.2009 -9- Impact of Defects on Detector Properties Shockley-Read-Hall statistics Impact on detector properties can be calculated if all defect parameters are known:  n,p : cross sections  E : ionization energy N t : concentration Trapping (e and h)  CCE shallow defects do not contribute at room temperature due to fast detrapping charged defects  N eff, V dep e.g. donors in upper and acceptors in lower half of band gap generation  leakage current Levels close to midgap most effective

10. Michael Moll – ESI 2009, 14.May.2009 -10- Poisson’s equation Reminder: Reverse biased abrupt p + -n junction Electrical charge density Electrical field strength Electron potential energy effective space charge density depletion voltage Full charge collection only for V B >V dep ! Positive space charge, N eff =[P] (ionized Phosphorus atoms)

11. Michael Moll – ESI 2009, 14.May.2009 -11- Macroscopic Effects – I. Depletion Voltage Change of Depletion Voltage V dep (N eff ) …. with particle fluence: “Type inversion”: N eff changes from positive to negative (Space Charge Sign Inversion) Short term: “Beneficial annealing” Long term: “Reverse annealing” - time constant depends on temperature: ~ 500 years(-10°C) ~ 500 days( 20°C) ~ 21 hours( 60°C) - Consequence: Detectors must be cooled even when the experiment is not running! …. with time (annealing): after inversion before inversion n+n+ p+p+ n+n+ p+p+

12. Michael Moll – ESI 2009, 14.May.2009 -12- Radiation Damage – II. Leakage Current  Damage parameter  (slope in figure) Leakage current per unit volume and particle fluence  is constant over several orders of fluence and independent of impurity concentration in Si  can be used for fluence measurement 80 min 60  C Change of Leakage Current (after hadron irradiation) …. with particle fluence:  Leakage current decreasing in time (depending on temperature)  Strong temperature dependence Consequence: Cool detectors during operation! Example: I(-10°C) ~1/16 I(20°C) 80 min 60  C …. with time (annealing):

13. Michael Moll – ESI 2009, 14.May.2009 -13- Deterioration of Charge Collection Efficiency (CCE) by trapping Increase of inverse trapping time (1/  ) with fluence Trapping is characterized by an effective trapping time  eff for electrons and holes: ….. and change with time (annealing): where Radiation Damage – III. CCE (Trapping)

14. Michael Moll – ESI 2009, 14.May.2009 -14- Summary: Radiation Damage in Silicon Sensors Two general types of radiation damage to the detector materials:  Bulk (Crystal) damage due to Non Ionizing Energy Loss (NIEL) - displacement damage, built up of crystal defects – I.Change of effective doping concentration (higher depletion voltage, under- depletion) II.Increase of leakage current (increase of shot noise, thermal runaway) III.Increase of charge carrier trapping (loss of charge)  Surface damage due to Ionizing Energy Loss (IEL) - accumulation of positive in the oxide (SiO 2 ) and the Si/SiO 2 interface – affects: interstrip capacitance (noise factor), breakdown behavior, … Impact on detector performance and Charge Collection Efficiency (depending on detector type and geometry and readout electronics!) Signal/noise ratio is the quantity to watch  Sensors can fail from radiation damage ! Same for all tested Silicon materials! Influenced by impurities in Si – Defect Engineering is possible! Can be optimized!

15. Michael Moll – ESI 2009, 14.May.2009 -15- Outline  Silicon Tracking Detectors at LHC  Motivation to study radiation hardness  Radiation Damage in Silicon Detectors  Microscopic defects (changes in silicon bulk material)  Macroscopic damage (changes in detector properties)  Approaches to obtain radiation hard sensors  Material Engineering  Device Engineering  Silicon Sensors for the LHC upgrade  Summary

16. Michael Moll – ESI 2009, 14.May.2009 -16-  Defect Engineering of Silicon  Understanding radiation damage Macroscopic effects and Microscopic defects Simulation of defect properties and defect kinetics Irradiation with different particles at different energies  Oxygen rich silicon  Oxygen dimer enriched silicon  Hydrogen enriched silicon  Pre-irradiated silicon  ….  New Materials  Diamond  Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Gallium Nitride (GaN), Silicon Carbide (SiC) have been excluded  Device Engineering (New Detector Designs)  p-type silicon detectors (n-in-p)  3D detectors  Thin detectors  Cost effective detectors  Monolithic silicon sensors (??) …… Approaches to develop radiation harder tracking detectors Scientific strategies: I.Material engineering II.Device engineering III.Variation of detector operational conditions “Cryogenic Tracking Detectors” “Forward bias operation”

17. Michael Moll – ESI 2009, 14.May.2009 -17-  Chemical-Vapor Deposition (CVD) of Si  up to 150  m thick layers produced  growth rate about 1  m/min Silicon Growth Processes Single crystal silicon Poly silicon RF Heating coil Float Zone Growth  Floating Zone Silicon (FZ)  Czochralski Silicon (CZ) Czochralski Growth  Basically all silicon tracking detectors made out of FZ silicon  Some pixel sensors out of DOFZ Diffusion Oxygenated FZ silicon  Epitaxial Silicon (EPI)  The growth method used by the IC industry.  Difficult to produce very high resistivity

18. Michael Moll – ESI 2009, 14.May.2009 -18-  CZ silicon and MCZ silicon  no type inversion* in the overall fluence range (verified by TCT measurements)  donor generation overcompensates acceptor generation in high fluence range  Common to all materials (after hadron irradiation):  reverse current increase  increase of trapping (electrons and holes) within ~ 20% Standard FZ, DOFZ, Cz and MCz Silicon 24 GeV/c proton irradiation  Standard FZ silicon type inversion at ~ 2  10 13 p/cm 2 strong N eff increase at high fluence  Oxygenated FZ (DOFZ) type inversion at ~ 2  10 13 p/cm 2 reduced N eff increase at high fluence * beware: reality is more complex (double junction)

19. Michael Moll – ESI 2009, 14.May.2009 -19- Advantage of non-inverting material p-in-n detectors (schematic figures!) Fully depleted detector (non – irradiated):

20. Michael Moll – ESI 2009, 14.May.2009 -20- inverted to “p-type”, under-depleted: Charge spread – degraded resolution Charge loss – reduced CCE Advantage of non-inverting material p-in-n detectors (schematic figures!) Fully depleted detector (non – irradiated): heavy irradiation inverted non-inverted, under-depleted: Limited loss in CCE Less degradation with under-depletion non inverted Be careful, this is a very schematic explanation, reality is more complex !

21. Michael Moll – ESI 2009, 14.May.2009 -21- Reverse annealing in non-inverting silicon  Example: 50  m thick silicon detectors: - Epitaxial silicon (50  cm) and Thin FZ silicon (4K  cm)  FZ silicon: Type inverted, increase of depletion voltage with time  Epitaxial silicon: No type inversion, decrease of depletion voltage with time  No need for low temperature during maintenance of SLHC detectors! [E.Fretwurst et al.,RESMDD - October 2004]

22. Michael Moll – ESI 2009, 14.May.2009 -22- p-on-n silicon, under-depleted: Charge spread – degraded resolution Charge loss – reduced CCE p + on-n Device engineering p-in-n versus n-in-p (or n-in-n) detectors n-on-p silicon, under-depleted: Limited loss in CCE Less degradation with under-depletion Collect electrons (3 x faster than holes) n + on-p n-type silicon after high fluences: (type inverted) p-type silicon after high fluences: (still p-type) Comments: - Instead of n-on-p also n-on-n devices could be used - Be careful, this is a schematic explanation, reality is more complex!

23. Michael Moll – ESI 2009, 14.May.2009 -23- n-in-p microstrip detectors  n-in-p microstrip p-type FZ detectors (Micron, 280 or 300  m thick, 80  m pitch, 18  m implant )  Detectors read-out with 40MHz (SCT 128A)  Charge Collection CCE: ~7300e (~30%) after ~ 1  10 16 cm -2 800V  n-in-p sensors are strongly considered for ATLAS upgrade (today: p-in-n used) Signal(10 3 electrons) [G.Casse, RD50 Workshop, June 2008] Fluence(10 14 n eq /cm 2 )

24. Michael Moll – ESI 2009, 14.May.2009 -24- Use of other semiconductor materials?  Diamond: wider bandgap  lower leakage current  less cooling needed  Signal produced by m.i.p: Diamond 36e/  m Si89e/  m  Si gives more charge than diamond  GaAs, SiC and GaN  strong radiation damage observed  no potential material for SLHC detectors  Diamond  good radiation tolerance (see later)  already used in LHC beam condition monitoring systems  considered as potential detector material for SLHC pixel sensors poly-CVD Diamond –16 chip ATLAS pixel module single crystal CVD Diamond of few cm 2

25. Michael Moll – ESI 2009, 14.May.2009 -25-  “3D” electrodes:- narrow columns along detector thickness, - diameter: 10  m, distance: 50 - 100  m  Lateral depletion:- lower depletion voltage needed - thicker detectors possible - fast signal - radiation hard 3D detector - concept n-columns p-columns wafer surface n-type substrate p+p+ - - - + + + + - - + 300  m n+n+ p+p+ 50  m - - - + + + + - - + 3D PLANAR p+p+

26. Michael Moll – ESI 2009, 14.May.2009 -26- Outline  Silicon Tracking Detectors at LHC  Motivation to study radiation hardness  Radiation Damage in Silicon Detectors  Approaches to obtain radiation hard sensors  Silicon Sensors for the LHC upgrade  A comparison of technologies in terms of collected charge (signal) Comment: The collected charge is a crucial parameter, but there are other important parameters to be considered: Signal to Noise ratio, efficiency, system aspects, availability and price of technology, reliability, cooling, track resolution, ….)  Summary

27. Michael Moll – ESI 2009, 14.May.2009 -27- Silicon materials for Tracking Sensors  Signal comparison for various Silicon sensors Note: Measured partly under different conditions! Lines to guide the eye (no modeling)!

28. Michael Moll – ESI 2009, 14.May.2009 -28- Silicon materials for Tracking Sensors  Signal comparison for various Silicon sensors Note: Measured partly under different conditions! Lines to guide the eye (no modeling)!

29. Michael Moll – ESI 2009, 14.May.2009 -29- Silicon materials for Tracking Sensors  Signal comparison for various Silicon sensors Note: Measured partly under different conditions! Lines to guide the eye (no modeling)! highest fluence for strip detectors in LHC: The used p-in-n technology is sufficient n-in-p technology should be sufficient for Super-LHC at radii presently (LHC) occupied by strip sensors LHC SLHC

30. Michael Moll – ESI 2009, 14.May.2009 -30- Silicon materials for Tracking Sensors  Signal comparison for various Silicon sensors  All sensors suffer from radiation damage  Presently three options for innermost pixel layers under investigation:  3-D silicon sensors (decoupling drift distance from active depth)  Diamond sensors  Silicon planar sensors Note: Measured partly under different conditions! Lines to guide the eye (no modeling)! Beware: Signal shown and not S/N !

31. Michael Moll – ESI 2009, 14.May.2009 -31- Summary – Radiation Damage  Radiation Damage in Silicon Detectors  Change of Depletion Voltage (type inversion, reverse annealing, …) (can be influenced by defect engineering!)  Increase of Leakage Current (same for all silicon materials)  Increase of Charge Trapping (same for all silicon materials) Signal to Noise ratio is quantity to watch (material + geometry + electronics)  Microscopic defects & Defect Engineering  Good understanding of damage after  -irradiation (point defects)  Damage after hadron damage still to be better understood (cluster defects), however enormous progress in last 2 years  CERN-R&D collaborations + LHC Experiments working on:  Material Engineering: new silicon materials (RD50), Diamond (RD42)  Device Engineering: 3D, thin sensors, n-in-p, n-in-n,..(RD50), Cryogenic, CI (RD39)  To obtain ultra radiation hard sensors a combination of material and device engineering approaches depending on radiation environment, application and available readout electronics will be best solution