Chapter 1 Effective reading for academic purposes

Chapter 1 Effective reading for academic purposes

Learning objectives On completion of this chapter students will know how to: identify individual reading styles and recognise their strengths and weaknesses understand the role of critical reading in the Australian academic context develop a range of strategies to improve reading capability, including speed and comprehension

Learning objectives (cont.)
adapt reading styles to suit the requirements of different texts recognise the integrated nature of reading and note-taking.

Why focus on reading? Tertiary studies require you to read very widely and in-depth across a range of subject areas. You will encounter new vocabulary and concepts. You will begin to notice that writers use different styles and structures of writing depending on the subject area. You might find that the reading strategies you have been using successfully are no longer adequate.

Your own reading style In groups of three or four, discuss your own reading ability. What makes a ‘good’ reader? Are you a good reader? What is your main problem when reading? What strategies have you developed for reading?

Your own reading style (cont.)
Also consider the following questions: What sorts of reading material do you enjoy most? Why? What attracts you to start reading a book or other text (e.g. cover, pictures, font size, topic etc.)? What are the best conditions for your reading? Do you use the same place? Do you need to be alone? Do you read at the same time each day?

Reading (English) quiz
For each of the following items, indicate whether the statement is true or false. I never read (in English) for pleasure.  True  False Reading is a tedious task that I do only because I have to. The best way to read academic texts is to just read the abstract or summary and then pretend to have read the whole thing.

Reading (English) quiz (cont.)
A good strategy to understand difficult vocabulary is to use an electronic translator.  True  False If I could read faster I would be a ‘good’ reader. I know I can’t read all the material assigned to me in my program, so I don’t even try. I have some well-developed reading strategies which have worked very well in my study experience to date.

Reading (English) quiz (cont.)
I find that talking about the main points of a difficult text with a classmate really helps my comprehension.  True  False I never write notes as I read. I just keep the information in my head. I always use a highlighter or pencil when reading academic texts.

Critical reading Students need to take individual responsibility for learning. Much more reading is needed than just the lecture notes or course guide. Developing your reading skills is of paramount importance.

Critical reading (cont.)
‘…it is not simply what you read or how much you read but how you read that will crucially affect your level of reading skill’ (Boddington and Clanchy 1999, p. 1). How you read will impact on your understanding of source material and the way you incorporate these sources into your own writing on a topic.

Critical reading involves making judgments about the value of what you are reading (Boddington & Clanchy 1999). Instead of simply consuming information you are expected to become a producer of information. You need to carefully assess what you read while constantly asking yourself whether the information you are reading is useful for the particular assignment you are working on.

To develop critical thinking and reading you need to interrogate both the writer and the text. Use the following questions to help you gain a critical perspective: What is this document about? Is it accurate? How do you know? Who wrote it? Is the writer an authority in this field? Is the writer trying to persuade you of a particular position? Is this argument based on a broad or narrow view of the issue?

More questions: What evidence is offered to support the argument? What hasn’t been included in the argument? What would a totally opposite point of view look like? Do you agree/disagree with the position presented by the writer? How did you come to this view? What do other writers have to say about this topic? Does this text add anything ‘new’ to the topic? Is this document useful for your present research?

Reading activity Read and critically evaluate the following two short texts using the critical reading dot points on the last slide. Which text would be most appropriate for the essay topic ‘Compare and contrast two brands of similar products available internationally’? How might you incorporate information from Text 2?

Text 1 (Baker 1999) ‘Successful brands are those which create [an] image or personality. They do it by encouraging customers to perceive the attributes they aspire to as being strongly associated with the brand. These attributes may be real and objective (e.g. quality, value for money) or abstract and emotional (e.g. status, youthfulness). The personality of the brand is a function of the rational characteristics but this has to be augmented and communicated to consumers through advertising, design, packaging and effective distribution and display. These position the brand’s personality in a consumer’s mind, generate confidence and create the purchasing environment.’

Text 2 (Coca-Cola 2005) ‘The Coca-Cola Company exists to benefit and refresh everyone it touches. Founded in 1886, our Company is the world‘s leading manufacturer, marketer, and distributor of nonalcoholic beverage concentrates and syrups, used to produce nearly 400 beverage brands. Our corporate headquarters are in Atlanta, with local operations in over 200 countries around the world.’

Effective reading There are four inter-related elements involved in effective reading for academic purposes (Boddington & Clanchy 1999): context purpose text strategy.

Context The context for your reading is tertiary study at an Australian/New Zealand university. This context determines the attitude you bring to your reading. You should have a genuine desire to learn rather than simply to ‘get the job done’. All texts read within your learning environment need to be approached with a sincere desire to understand. Without this basic attitude you are unlikely to gain the full benefit of your reading while studying at university.

Activity 1 Write down the five main reasons you decided to enrol in your current program of study. Consider your career aspirations, what you hope to achieve in your particular degree or program, how your study will affect your future life and so on. Now consider how the reasons for embarking on your current course of study might impact on the attitude that you bring to your reading, which in turn will result in more or less effective reading practices.

Purpose Before you begin reading you need to define your purpose.
If researching for an assignment, are you looking for an explanation, evidence for a critique, or to fill gaps in your own knowledge of the topic? To ascertain the purpose of your reading: pay careful attention to your lecturer’s instructions, both oral and written ensure that you fully understand the requirements of the assignment use the marking criteria provided to guide your reading.

80/20 principle Piscitelli (2004) recommends the ‘80/20 principle’.
In most reading assignments, 80% of what you need to know is in about 20% of the material. So you usually only need to skim read 80% of the document and carefully read the relevant 20%. This will significantly cut down your reading time. The purpose for your reading will dictate how much of the text you have to read carefully.

Refining your purpose Your purpose will change as you work through your research tasks: when you first receive an assignment when you start to answer the assignment question as your ideas start to change when you decide you need to read different texts to fill in any gaps in your emerging understanding. Boddington (1999) refers to this process as ‘refining your purpose’ (p. 10).

Text A text may be: a book a textbook a newspaper article
a journal article a report an online document a graphic/table/illustration even a comic!

Text and genre Texts in the same genre have similar characteristics or conventions. Recognising the particular features of different genres helps you to skim a text and determine if it is appropriate to use for your present research. You need to be able to identify: different types of text you will need at university the data or information available in each.

Activity 2 Form groups of three or four students and discuss how your reading technique differs depending on the type of text you are reading. Consider the way you read: a dense academic text a newspaper an advertising brochure a recipe book a novel a comic a personal letter.

Activity 2 (cont.) Is your reading technique determined by the type of text, your purpose for reading or a combination of both? List the reading techniques you have developed in your study so far. Does your reading technique change according to the task (e.g. if you are reading for an assignment, or reading as part of exam revision)? How?

Reading strategies Speed reading Scanning by key words and phrases
Skimming by paragraphs SQ3R method: Survey Question Read Recite Review

SQ3R method Before you read, SURVEY (SCAN) the text:
title, headings, subheadings captions under pictures, charts, etc. introduction and conclusion summary or abstract.

SQ3R method (cont.) QUESTION while you are surveying:
Turn the title/headings into questions. If reading a textbook, read the questions at the end of the chapter. Ask yourself, ‘What do I already know about this subject?’ Ask yourself, ‘What did the lecturer say about this topic?’

SQ3R method (cont.) When you begin to READ:
Note all the underlined, bold or italicised words. Reduce your reading speed for difficult passages (but try not to do this all the time). Check your dictionary only when you cannot determine the meaning from the context. DO NOT check every word. Give yourself permission to ‘miss’ the meaning of some words. Aim for overall comprehension. Look for answers to the questions you first raised.

SQ3R method (cont.) RECITE after you read each section:
Orally ask yourself questions about what you have just read. Write a one-sentence summary at the end of each section. Underline/highlight key points. Make notes in the margin (or on a separate piece of paper with the full reference included in your notes).

SQ3R method (cont.) REVIEW your reading:
After you have finished the whole article or chapter, write a short summary. Keep this summary with the text. Never finish an article without doing some form of oral and written review. If studying for an exam, go back through the text and ask yourself questions (flash cards work well).

Skimming by paragraphs
This approach is based on the following understandings: The paragraph is an idea unit, coherent in itself but also part of a whole argument. Signposts (single words or phrases) show the internal connections and the overall development of an argument and usually occur at the beginning of paragraphs. Opening sentences of each paragraph usually provide an outline of the argument being presented.

Skimming by paragraphs (cont.)
Four steps in this approach (Clanchy and Ballard 1997): Step 1: Look for signposts (in the title or section headings). Step 2: Read just the first section in full. Step 3: Summarise the key points in this section. Step 4: Read the first sentences of each paragraph. (You will notice that if you put these first sentences together they will be similar to your summary of the first section.)

Reading difficult vocabulary
If you are constantly checking the meaning of words, ask yourself the following questions: Why are you reading? If it is simply to gain an overview of a topic, you may not need to know the meaning of every word. Do you need all the detail? Again, a general impression (remember 80/20) may be all you need.

Reading difficult vocabulary (cont.)
Some words are more important than others, in which case you will need to consult a dictionary: Is the word in the title? Does it occur often? Is it a ‘jargon’ word? Try to work out the meaning from the context. To understand a process, look up verbs. If you want to understand an idea, look up nouns.

Reading tips Reading speed and comprehension depend on the type of text. Practice is the best way to improve. Do not read every word starting from the beginning. Read the title: ask yourself what you already know. Scan or survey the whole text first. Read introductory and concluding paragraphs.

Reading tips (cont.) Read the first sentence in each paragraph carefully. Note headings, titles, diagrams, pictures. Think while you read. Ask yourself questions. Underline, highlight, make notes in the margin. Try to work out the meanings of words from the context but, if necessary, check your dictionary. Write a one-sentence summary at the end of every chapter or section or do a simple oral review.

Chapter 2 Note-taking, paraphrasing and summarising

Learning objectives On completion of this chapter students will know how to: take notes from oral and written sources summarise written text paraphrase relevant information from references use quotations.

Note-taking Note-taking is an essential skill for retaining information from: lectures readings oral presentations and discussions. Eunson (2005) states that the process of prioritising relevant information from a whole mass of information is called ‘tactile thinking’. Tactile thinking is used for efficient note-taking.

Methods of note-taking
Index cards Colour-coded material Numerical or alphabetical arrangement of material Use any method or a combination of methods but be consistent for efficient recovery of notes.

Note-taking from lectures
Less time for note-taking at lectures than from reading materials Shorten words/phrases example: Australia Au. experiment exp. Use symbols instead of the words. example: dollar $ percentage %

Note-taking from written sources
Maintaining careful notes from your resources is a key skill in writing a research essay. Develop your own style (e.g. note cards, indexed files, software such as Endnote) Be meticulous!

Key referencing information
If the notes are from a book write down: Author name(s) Year of publication Page number Title of book Place of publication Publisher’s name If the notes are from a journal write down: Title of article Page numbers Name of journal Volume and issue numbers

Key referencing information (cont.)
If the notes are from online sources write down: Author name(s)/publishing institution Title of article Year of publication Date viewed

Electronic note-taking
Different from note-taking from electronic sources. Many software programs (e.g. OneNote, Internet clipboards, PasteHere) assist electronic note-taking. Software primarily operates on a copy/paste method. Notes taken in this way must be paraphrased before insertion into written documents to avoid plagiarism.

Electronic reference storage
Software programs such as Endnote accurately store information for the generation of reference lists but students will not gain practice in writing the lists manually. Use them to store a large number of references. Practise writing the list by hand according to styles such as Harvard, APA and MLA.

Summarising Three components: Be brief but thorough.
Equal coverage of all parts of the text Follow the headings and subheadings Objective presentation of the text (not your opinion) Your own words Be brief but thorough. Most useful for noting large slabs of information.

Summarising (cont.) Five steps to summarising (Swales & Feak, 2005):
Read text quickly to determine important information. Read text in detail and note down main facts and ideas. Write main points in your own words. Write important material in relation to the main points. Re-draft summary, adding or deleting materials if necessary.

Paraphrasing Use for smaller units of information, such as one or two sentences. Maintain the exact meaning and reference the idea appropriately. See examples on next slide and also in Chapter 4: Academic conventions, pp. 74–76.

Paraphrasing (cont.) Example Original text
‘To be effective, a brand identity needs to resonate with customers, differentiate the brand from competitors, and represent what the organization can and will do over time’ (Aker & Joachimsthaler 2000, p. 40).

Paraphrasing (cont.) Example (cont.)
Acceptable paraphrase A brand that aims for a successful identity must fulfil the following criteria: meet the practical and emotional needs of its customers, portray itself as being different from other brands selling similar services or products and provide a future vision of the company. (Aker & Joachimsthaler, 2000) Longer, new structure, and synonyms used where appropriate

Paraphrasing (cont.) Example (cont.)
Unacceptable paraphrase An effective brand resonates with customers, differs from competitors and represents what the company will try to do over time (Aker & Joachimsthaler, 2000). Most key words are unchanged and the structure of the original has been kept.

Six steps in paraphrasing
1. Read original passage and understand the meaning fully (several readings). 2. Find synonyms for the information words. 3. Make notes from the original passage. 4. Write the paraphrase from your notes. 5. Check your paraphrase to see if all the information from the original is included and you are not plagiarising the passage. 6. Reference the source appropriately in-text as well as in the reference list.

Quoting from sources Use quotations only when the original words add to your argument. Ask yourself: Does the quotation support my argument? Is it memorable? Does it add the weight of an authority? Is the quotation necessary because it provides the specific details of a law or regulation?

Quoting from sources (cont.)
Avoid writing an essay that is a collection of patched-together quotes. Be careful not to insert a quote just because you think it ‘looks good’. Show quotation marks and the full reference, including the page number.

Summary: Note-taking Helps students prioritise and remember material.
Uses shortened forms of words or phrases. Places details under subheadings. Can be done in any method the student is comfortable with.

Summary: Summarising Shorter version of the original.
Three main components: equal coverage unbiased rewritten in your own words. Five steps: skim reading detailed reading writing of main points writing of essential elements of main points redrafting.

Summary: Paraphrasing
Rephrases material without changing meaning. Includes the same amount of information as the original text. Six steps: reading and understanding finding synonyms for information words making notes writing a paraphrase revising the paraphrase referencing.

Summary: Quoting Should be done only if it is memorable or the paraphrase leads to loss of essence or meaning. Includes the words, grammar and punctuation of the original writing. Material that is added to or deleted from the original text should be inserted in parentheses.

Chapter 3 Essay writing

Learning objectives On completion of this chapter students will know how to: prepare a research plan for an essay prepare a writing plan for an essay present persuasive arguments supplemented with references write a well-presented academic essay.

Why write essays? To analyse a topic closely
To develop a point of view in relation to a topic To persuade the reader that your position is well supported by the ideas and information you present.

Steps in writing an essay
Choose the question Analyse the question Make an initial plan Locate the resources Read and make notes Write the first draft Revise and redraft Organise the reference list Proofread

Choose the question Which topic interests you the most?
Which has good resource material available? Which is relevant to you personally or professionally? Which would you find easiest to write about?

Analyse the question Three main parts of an essay question:
process words analyse, explain, discuss, compare, contrast, describe, justify, criticise, interpret, argue content words describe the content you will focus on in the essay limit words information limits (e.g. time, place, group) academic limits (word length, due date)

Types of essays Two main types of essays:
explain (an essay that explains a process or situation) argue (an essay that argues a point of view). In analysing the question, determine which type of essay you are expected to write. Many essays are a combination of both types.

Plan your essay Do this as soon as you have analysed the question. Use the knowledge you already have about the topic. The plan will: help you clarify your point of view give you direction (get you started) point you towards resources. Remember: this is only an initial plan and you can add to it as you progress towards the final document.

Structure of an essay Introduction (10%) Define the question and the key terms. Give a thesis statement: this is the main idea you will develop in the essay using evidence. Body (80%) Develop evidence, information and examples for each side of the topic, with support from appropriate references. Conclusion (10%) Weigh up the information and give your opinion based on the evidence. No new material.

Locate the resources Where to look:
university library catalogue and databases your textbook, plus other texts the reference list of one good resource (find one and you are on your way) the Internet (beware! Not all information on the Web is suitable). Always keep a full bibliographic record of sources.

Research and note-taking
Organise and focus the research. Use section headings based on the analysis of the question. Carefully read and take notes from the readings you have selected for the assignment. This is the beginning of your research plan.

Read and take notes Revise Chapter 2 on note-taking.
Scan the whole text first. Look for key words and phrases. Locate and read the thesis and topic sentences carefully. Take notes in your own words. Think while your read: why is this document relevant? Ask yourself questions. Be critical.

Write the first draft Based on your research, create an essay plan (what you will include in your essay). Make sure you have enough time to write and revise the essay. Write the main points of the essay (the body) first and then write the introduction and conclusion.

Essay plan This is different from planning your essay. The essay plan should include: a layout of the paragraphs you will have in your essay the main points you will discuss in each paragraph (the topic sentence) the references you will include in each paragraph.

Paragraphing Paragraphs are the units of composition used for developing your topics. If there is a new topic, there should be a new paragraph. When several paragraphs are used to deal with one topic, there should be a new paragraph for each new aspect of the topic.

Paragraphing (cont.) Paragraphs assist the reader in moving from one topic to another. A paragraph should be a tight collection of sentences that all contribute to the central idea of the essay. Anything irrelevant should be left out.

Connectors Connectors are words or phrases used within paragraphs to help show the connection between one sentence and another, or one topic and another. Connectors should be used carefully and sparingly. A well-written essay will make the relationship of ideas clear to the reader.

Connectors (cont.) Connectors are used to:
make comparisons or contrasts add to one idea express a result summarise illustrate or explain arrange ideas: in order in time, or in space.

Connectors (cont.) Some common connectors are:
for example for instance therefore consequently besides also first, second, third meanwhile afterwards though next however but, yet, so, and in short to sum up finally similarly likewise thus then in other words

Topic sentences Paragraphs usually consist of several sentences that are arranged in a logical manner to develop a main idea. The main idea is usually contained in a single sentence, a part of a sentence, or sometimes two sentences. Topic sentences may appear at the beginning, middle or end of a paragraph (usually the beginning).

Topic sentences (cont.)
Topic sentences are sometimes implied, rather than stated. Occasionally the topic sentence is the last sentence of the preceding paragraph. Clear topic sentences are vital to the organisation and development of ideas in an essay.

Paragraph checklist Does each paragraph have a definite point to make? Is there a topic sentence? Have you used a plan to develop each paragraph? Have you removed unnecessary sentences? Do all sentences now relate to the main topic in each paragraph? Have you used a variety of methods in your paragraph development? Do your ideas move forward in a straight, uninterrupted flow from beginning to end?

Paragraph checklist (cont.)
Have you made effective use of connectives? Is the length of each paragraph consistent with the relative importance of the idea? Are your paragraphs developed adequately? Have you given enough information and examples? Do all of your paragraphs relate to the statement/question of the essay?

Revise and redraft Once the main issues to be discussed in the essay have been written up in paragraph format you should do the following: Write the introduction and conclusion, placing emphasis on the main points. Read over the paragraphs to see if they flow logically or need to be re-organised. Check to see if the paragraphs are connected (through ideas rather than connectors).

Introduction The introduction should be a road map for your readers. It should tell them what you will discuss in-depth later in the essay. This is why it should be written once the main points have been written up. It should contain a thesis statement that suggests your point of view to the reader. Supplement your views with generalised references but do not go into specifics in the introduction.

Conclusion Your conclusions should remind your readers of the significant points made in the essay. Do not include any new arguments or references. For most essays, one paragraph of conclusion is preferred.

Organise the reference list
A reference list is a list of sources that you have cited, not just read. Read Chapter 4 for details. The reference list should include the following: an alphabetical list of all the sources based on the first author’s last name all details necessary for the style of referencing stated in your course. The reference list should correspond to the in-text references.

Proofread The final thing to do before submitting your essay.
Keep a gap of at least a day between finishing an essay and proofreading it. Check your essay for stylistic or grammatical errors. Check the logical flow of the content. Check for clarity in presentation.

Final checklist Has the question/topic been addressed appropriately?
Is your point of view apparent and constant throughout the essay? Have you paraphrased/quoted your sources appropriately? Do the references support your arguments logically? Are the paragraphs distinct (i.e. discuss separate points)?

Final checklist (cont.)
Are the paragraphs connected (i.e. logical connections to previous and subsequent paragraphs)? Does the introduction have a thesis statement? Does the introduction have a map of the rest of the essay? Does the conclusion re-state the main points? Does the conclusion have any new ideas?

Final checklist (cont.)
Are the reference list and the in-text references appropriate for the style of referencing you are supposed to adhere to? Have you proofread the essay? Is the presentation clear and readable?

Chapter 4 Academic conventions: referencing and avoiding plagiarism

Learning objectives On completion of this chapter students will know how to: understand the ethical underpinnings of academic scholarship and research in the Australian/New Zealand context value the integral nature of referencing for all academic work be able to use summarising, paraphrasing and quoting in the development of an academic research paper

Learning objectives (cont.)
understand the need to incorporate their ‘voice’ in academic argument be able to use connecting words and reporting verbs appropriately have the skills to use both the first and the third person in academic writing, depending on course requirements appreciate the importance of establishing good administrative systems for note-taking and referencing.

Educational integrity
Educational integrity is based on the premise that students and teachers in any learning institution will adhere to honest methods of teaching, learning and assessment even when they are faced with adverse or stressful situations.

Educational integrity (cont.)
Five major tenets of educational integrity: honesty trust fairness respect responsibility ( Students need to take responsibility for their education by: preparing for class, assignments and exams avoiding cheating referencing sources appropriately refraining from any activities that will compromise the integrity of their learning experience.

Why study at university?
The aim of studying in a university setting is not to acquire a degree by any means possible but to apply the knowledge we gain in prospective jobs or our life in general. Any degree is partly meant to benefit the individual who acquired it and partly meant to benefit the society in which this individual will work.

Importance of referencing
The first step towards achieving educational integrity is learning to reference correctly. Referencing enhances your writing and helps the reader by: showing the breadth of your research strengthening your academic argument showing the reader your source of information allowing the reader to consult and verify your sources independently.

Using references In an academic record references must be provided whenever you use someone’s ideas, opinions or words. That is, when you: ‘quote’ (use their exact words) copy (use graphs, figures, tables) paraphrase (use their idea in your own words) summarise (give a brief account of their ideas).

Activity 1 Complete the ‘Using sources’ quiz on p. 63 of your textbook.

The ‘blue chair theory’

Harvard referencing Keep a copy of the referencing guide with you (see Appendix 1 online) and check it constantly when you are organising the references for any assignment. There are two main parts to the author-date system: in-text reference: acknowledges the information used in the text reference list: lists all the sources cited in the text.

Harvard referencing (cont.)
To acknowledge a source within the text of an assignment or report, state the following: author’s family name year of publication page numbers (especially when you quote, paraphrase or copy).

In-text referencing There are two ways of citing references:
Author-prominent Gives prominence to the author by using the author’s name as part of the sentence, with the date and page number in brackets e.g. Smith (1992, p. 5) has argued that ‘the relative seriousness of the two kinds of errors differs from situation to situation’. Information-prominent Gives prominence to the information, with all the details in brackets e.g. It has been argued that ‘the relative seriousness of the two kinds of errors differs from situation to situation’ (Smith 1992, p. 5).

Page numbers Page numbers are one of the three ‘must-dos’ of the author-date system. Page numbers must be used whenever you quote, copy, paraphrase or summarise an idea from a particular page or pages. Note: Web pages do not have page numbers.

Referencing broad ideas
You do not have to give the page number if you have summarised a large portion of an author’s work or if the idea is a general one gleaned from a large work.

Referencing online sources
In-text references do not include the URL. Use the same principles (author, date, page) that you use for other in-text references. E.g. One researcher has suggested that new technology will radically alter tertiary education (Brown 1995). N.B. A page number is not usually available for online documents. In this case, simply state the author (or the organisation) and the date. Give the full URL in the reference list. It is equivalent to a page number.

Referencing online sources (cont.)
If a Web page has no author, use the sponsoring (or publishing) body. E.g. The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation employs 6500 staff at Australian and international locations (CSIRO 2003). If there is no author or organisation use the title of the web page and the date in-text.

Reference list The reference list is arranged: alphabetically
at the end of the essay, article or report on a separate page only with references that have been referred to in your work (not everything you have read on the topic) using consistent punctuation and layout (see Appendix 1).

Listing books Include the following information in this order:
author’s surname and initials year of publication publisher place of publishing e.g. Rayner, K. & Pollatsek, A. 1989, The Psychology of Reading, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey.

Listing journal articles
Include the following information in order: author’s surname and initials year of publication title of article (in quotation marks) title of journal (in italics) volume number (if applicable) issue number (if applicable) page number(s).

Listing online sources
Include the following information in order: the author (editor or compiler) (if there is no author use the publishing or sponsoring body) date (of creation or most recent update) title of the Web document (this may be in italics or in ‘quote marks’) publishing or sponsoring body (do not use this twice if you have used this as ‘author’) date accessed the FULL URL link.

Important It is not enough to simply add a reference list to the end of an essay or report. Do not give one reference at the end of a paragraph! All references in the list must match your in-text references. Double-check that you have used a consistent and correct punctuation style in the reference list.

Activity 2 Complete the ‘Referencing’ quiz on pp. 69–70 of your textbook.

What is plagiarism? Plagiarism is to take someone else’s words or ideas and present them as your own. For example: using someone else’s ideas or words without referencing using a direct quote without referencing (note: you need to show a quote by using ‘quotation marks’) copying another student’s work and submitting it as your own submitting another student’s work in whole or in part.

What is plagiarism? (cont.)
submitting work which has been written by someone else on your behalf using lecture/tutorial notes without referencing (including lecture notes from another course/institution) paraphrasing work by only changing a few words (you still need to give the full reference for paraphrases).

Penalties for plagiarism
Plagiarism is considered to be serious academic dishonesty. Penalties can include: a note on your student file a formal reprimand from a senior academic failure in the assignment or exam (including a score of ‘zero’) failure in the subject or course expulsion from the course suspension or expulsion from the university.

Activity 3 Complete the ‘Plagiarism attitude scale’ on pp. 72–73 of your textbook.

Strategies to avoid plagiarism
Referencing (discussed previously; see guides to referencing styles in Appendices 1 and 2 online) Direct quotation Summarising Paraphrasing Developing your own ‘voice’ in academic writing

Strategies to avoid plagiarism (cont.)
Using connecting words and phrases carefully Using reporting verbs appropriately Writing in academic style Developing an argument Establishing efficient scheduling and administrative systems

Referencing Keep a copy of the referencing guide (Appendix 1, online) with you as you write every draft of your assignment. Use a card index system to help you keep track of your references. Use a software package such as Endnote to catalogue references.

Direct quotation A quotation is an excerpt of the exact words of a source, presented as they originally appeared, and enclosed within ‘quotation marks’. Quotations longer than 20 words are indented and therefore do not need quotation marks. All quotations need a full reference, including author’s name, year of publishing and page number.

Direct quotation (cont.)
Only use a quotation when it contributes to the argument you are developing in your essay. Ask yourself: Does the quotation support my argument? Is it memorable? Does it add weight of an authority? Is the quotation necessary because it provides the specific details of a law or regulation?

Summarising See Chapter 2 for full details on how to summarise.
A summary gives the main points or ideas of an article, clearly and concisely in your own words. A good summary follows the organisation of the text. Ask yourself: What point is the author actually making? What ideas or evidence are used to support this point?

Paraphrasing See Chapter 2 for full details on how to paraphrase.
To paraphrase means to read and understand a piece of source material and then rewrite it in your own way. The exact meaning of the source is kept, but the way the meaning is expressed is changed.

Paraphrasing (cont.) You need to: change the grammatical structure
rearrange the sequence of information use different words (except for specific terms) use your own style provide a reference to the original source (e.g. Hamp-Lyons & Courter 1984, p. 3).

Developing your own ‘voice’
Voice’ refers to the argument and the purpose of the writer. The student/writer should be constantly asking: Who is saying this? Is this my own view or the view of another writer/researcher? If it is my view have I made that clear to the reader? If it is the view of someone else is that obvious to the reader?

Developing your own ‘voice’ (cont.)
A student’s ‘voice’ guides the reader through an essay by: explaining the ideas of other writers identifying a key idea and presenting evidence from published work to support it comparing and contrasting the ideas of writers summarising the ideas of one or more published writers using the work of one or more writers to indicate why the student disagrees with a particular perspective or point.

Using connecting words and phrases
Some connecting words and connecting phrases may confuse the voice of the writer with that of a referenced source. E.g. therefore, unless, clearly, as a result, nevertheless, it follows that. The writer must make very clear who is making the connection between one idea and the next.

Using connecting words and phrases (cont.)
Whose opinion is expressed in the following extract (yours or the referenced research)? How is the connector ‘therefore’ confusing? Smith (1997, p. 2) argues that accountants as a professional group lack an ethical framework. Therefore, all accounting courses should include an introduction to basic ethics. How could you rewrite this to indicate that the opinion is yours? How could you rewrite it to indicate that the opinion is Smith’s?

Examples of clear ‘voice’
Your opinion: Smith (1997, p. 2) argues that accountants as a professional group lack an ethical framework. Using Smith’s argument as a basis, it could therefore be concluded that all accounting courses should include an introduction to basic ethics. Smith’s opinion: Smith (1997, p. 2) argues that accountants as a professional group lack an ethical framework. The author further suggests that all accounting courses should include an introduction to basic ethics (Smith 1997, p. 7).

Reporting verbs Choosing appropriate nouns and verbs is important in conveying a particular perspective. Be very precise in your choice of words to present research.

Reporting verbs (cont.)
Two main types of reporting verbs: 1. Neutral verb Simply passes on what a cited author has written and does not indicate your own opinion or interpretation. Example: Gabbott (2004) states that people want a brand so that they can bond with the product beyond the simple functional level (p. 265). 2. Interpretative verb Indicate your opinion or interpretation. Example: Gabbott (2004) claims that people want a brand so that they can ‘bond’ with the product beyond the simple functional level (p. 265).

Activity 4 Which of the following verbs are neutral and which are interpretative? (Some may be used for both purposes.) maintain challenge claim outline argue doubt remark report demonstrate describe agree question clarify show state

Using reporting verbs in academic writing
The following sentences use reporting verbs inappropriately. Why? Batey (2002, p. 85) says that ‘All brands have a body and soul’. Batey (2002, p. 87) mentions that whether more weight is given to emotional or rational values depends on the kind of brand being promoted. Batey (2002) tells us that there is not much difference in quality between Japanese and South Korean brands.

Writing in academic style
Most business research papers are written in the third person. The idea is to focus on the information itself, not on the writer or the reader. Incorrect example ‘We want a brand so that people can bond with a product at other than the simple functional level.’ (Gabbott 2004, p. 266)

Writing in academic style (cont.)
This could be rewritten in several ways, so that the information is emphasised: Correct examples: Brands enable people to bond with a product at other than the simple functional level (Gabbott 2004, p. 266). People bond with a product beyond the simple functional level because of its brand (Gabbott 2004, p. 266).

Using your voice in early drafts
Although objective language is a mark of academic writing, giving yourself permission to use ‘I’ may help you develop your own voice or position in relation to a question/topic. The ‘I’ makes you write your ideas, thoughts and convictions and helps you to find clarity.

Using your voice in early drafts (cont.)
Use ‘I’ in first drafts only. For example, every time you give your opinion, view or idea, start the sentence with: ‘I think…’ ‘In my opinion…’ ‘I agree/disagree with…’ etc. During this first draft process, differentiate the views of other researchers by starting sentences with: ‘According to…’ ‘X says…’ ‘One study found that…’

Edit in academic style In subsequent edited drafts, change the ‘I’ to the third person (academic style). ‘I think…’ = ‘The research suggests…’ ‘In my opinion…’ = ‘It is apparent that…’ ‘I agree…’ = ‘The evidence makes it clear…’

Rewrite in academic style
1. My research has shown that branding saves consumer search time. 2. To determine consumer preferences, we developed a questionnaire to be completed by each participant. 3. The questionnaire was based on our review of the literature. 4. We questioned the rationale for the change in advertising policy. 5. You should verify the accuracy of this report by asking the directors to review the information.

Develop an argument Refer to Chapters 1, 2 and 3 for full details on how to develop an argument. Review: Closely analyse the topic/question. Develop an essay plan based on careful reading and note-taking. Ensure that a central ‘thesis’ is evident from the introduction. Use topic sentences for each paragraph. Write a conclusion that summarises your position.

Establish efficient scheduling and administrative systems
Plagiarism is not always a deliberate act of academic dishonesty. It often occurs because students have not developed adequate organisational skills to ensure that: their various assignments are carefully scheduled to meet deadlines all sources used in those assignments are easily accessible to double-check details for references.

Efficient scheduling At the beginning of each semester, plot all of your assessment items on a semester or yearly planner. Use an electronic calendar such as the one provided in Outlook, or an old-fashioned wall calendar. Ensure that the assessment calendar is constantly visible. Using your preferred calendar, schedule key dates for each assignment.

Efficient scheduling (cont.)
Schedule the various activities you need to complete for each assignment (e.g. reading, note-taking, drafting) and note any family/social commitments. (See example on p. 82 of your textbook.) Allocate time according to the percentage value of the assignment. Keep in mind the nature of the assignment (e.g. research essay vs. short answer assignment).

Efficient scheduling (cont.)
Use a system of symbols or colours to highlight important dates or to group activities. Try to schedule small or easier tasks on weekends so you have time to relax. Plan your social calendar after you have organised your study schedule.

Good administrative systems
Develop a system (such as index note cards or a software program) to keep track of all your references. Write full bibliographic details on all notes, summaries and drafts. Include full in-text references from the very first draft. Do not simply add a reference list to the end of an essay or report.

Good administrative systems (cont.)
All references in the list must match your in-text references. Double-check that you have used a consistent punctuation style in the reference list. Allow at least one hour per 1000 words to finalise referencing.

Summary Academic integrity is essential in a successful learning experience. Academic misconduct in the form or plagiarism will attract severe penalties from Australian and NZ universities.

Summary (cont.) Some strategies to avoid plagiarism include:
referencing quoting, summarising and paraphrasing using connectors and reporting verbs appropriately developing an argument differentiating your ‘voice’ from the cited sources developing efficient scheduling and administrative systems.

Activities 5–8 Complete Activities 10, 11, 12 and 13 in your textbook.

Chapter 5 Improving your writing: grammar and self-editing

Learning objectives On completion of this chapter students will know how to: identify ways to improve writing independently develop a strategic approach to editing written work understand the basic features of specific grammatical constructions.

Grammatical constructions addressed in this chapter
Subject/verb agreement Parallel construction Verb tense Article use The apostrophe Word form Passive tenses Gerunds and infinitives So, neither and nor Still and yet

Be proactive about learning how to write well
Students who adopt an independent and proactive approach to their language development are likely to make better progress than those who simply hope the problem of language will disappear.

How can you improve your English language skills?
Investigate any language support services your university offers, whether as workshops or online. In some universities you can make appointments with trained staff to discuss your written work. Invest some money in a self-study grammar book with answers. Ask university staff for advice on useful texts. Approach your university librarian for suggestions on how they can help you to improve your language and the resources and services they offer.

Activity 1 Write down the resources available in your university that can help you to improve your English language. Discuss the options you have tried and recommend some to other students.

Common grammatical errors
Errors are easy to overlook, particularly when working within tight deadlines. Not all errors are detected by computer grammar checkers so edit your work after you have used the software. Remember: Poor grammar may change your meaning or make your ideas difficult to understand.

Sentence structure There are two kinds of common error in writing sentences: incomplete sentences ‘run-on’ (or run-together) sentences.

Complete sentences A complete sentence must contain a subject and a predicate. (The rest of the sentence must contain a verb.) Example Our business partners will arrive tomorrow Subject Predicate The verb

Complete sentences (cont.)
In formal writing you must use complete sentences. A group of words without a subject or predicate is NOT a sentence. For example: And arrived later No subject He feeling very happy. Incomplete verb

Activity 2 Complete Activity 2 on p. 96 of your textbook.

Complete sentences (cont.)
A complete sentence is also called an independent clause. A clause may be independent (able to stand alone—a sentence) or dependent (cannot stand alone—is not a complete sentence). A clause is a group of words with a subject and a verb.

Run-on sentences If two independent clauses are written together with
no punctuation merely a comma no joining word they are called a run-on sentence. Examples He is a good manager all the staff like him He is a good manager, all the staff like him (Both are run-on sentences and therefore incorrect.)

Using conjunctions to fix run-on sentences
Using coordinating conjunctions: with a comma and one of the following words: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. Example He is a good manager, and all the staff like him.

Using conjunctions to fix run-on sentences (cont.)
Using correlative conjunctions: use: both…and, not only…but also, either…or Example Not only is he a good manager but also all the staff like him.

Using a semicolon (;) and a conjunctive adverb plus a comma (,): common conjunctive adverbs: finally, then, consequently Example He is a good manager; consequently, all the staff like him.

Using a subordinating conjunction: one sentence is less important than the other Example All the staff like her because she is a good manager.

Join the sentences with a relative pronoun such as who, which or that: He is a good manager he initiated new business practices. (Run-on sentence) He is a good manager who initiated new business practices. (Correct sentence)

Activity 3 Complete activity 3 on pp. 97–98 of your textbook.

Subject/verb agreement
A singular subject must have a singular verb. Plural subjects must have a plural verb.

Subject/verb agreement (cont.)
Example Susan and Anna are excellent colleagues. The verb ‘to be’ must be plural too. Susan and Anna are two people so the subjects are plural.

Subject/verb agreement (cont.)
Example The verb ‘to be’ must take the singular form ‘is’. The university is quite new compared to others in the state. The university is a singular subject

Singular words take singular verbs
‘one’ words: anyone, someone, everyone, one, no one ‘body’ words: anybody, everybody, somebody ‘thing’ words: anything, everything, something, nothing each, either, neither

Singular words take singular verbs (cont.)
Examples Someone needs to oversee the changes. Everybody is happy with the changes. Everything has been agreed. Each manager has granted approval.

Other singular subjects
Uncountable nouns The rice is steamed. A single gerund or gerund phrase Understanding the problem is difficult for him. An amount of time, money or weight; plural forms are considered as single concepts Six months is not a long time to write a proposal. Five thousand dollars is a lot of money. More than five kilos costs more.

Group words The following ‘group’ words take a singular verb if you are thinking of the group as a whole, but they take a plural verb if you are thinking of the individuals in the group: audience, band, class, family, kind, committee, crowd, dozen, flock, group, heap, herd, jury, lot, number, none, public, team, majority, minority, orchestra, pair, staff

Group words (cont.) Examples
The jury are still arguing. (individuals in the group) The team is on the field. (group) The team are suiting up. (individuals in the group) My family is behind me. (group) The jury is ready. (group) My family are all scattered. (individuals in the group)

Group words (cont.) Subject/verb agreement may be confusing if these words are separated by others. Example The colour on the walls matches the company logo. Identify the verb in the sentence (‘matches’) and then ask what is being matched (‘The colour of the walls’).

Parallel construction
When using one sentence to express two ideas, both ideas should have the same type of construction. You will also need to use the same construction when there are two sentences that are joined with conjunctions such as ‘and’ and ‘but’.

Parallel construction (cont.)
Which one of these sentences is correct? Why? Enrolling in a course that is assessed on coursework is preferable to take one with a final exam. Enrolling in a course that is assessed on coursework is preferable to taking one with a final exam. The second example is correct. Both ideas in the sentence have matching verb forms. They both end in ‘ing’.

Parallel construction in verb phrases (dot points)
Example Management aims to: introduce new safety measures coordinate focus groups establish a social club investigate ideas from other companies.

Parallel construction in verb phrases (dot points) (cont.)
Each dot point begins with the verb in the same form. Note that the verb after the dot point is not capitalised because it continues the stem sentence. It does not begin a new one.

Parallel construction in verb phrases (dot points) (cont.)
Rewrite using parallel construction: With regard to safety, management aims to: to have the building officially inspected by a fire safety officer that we should provide three more fire extinguishers on each floor of the building instruct the students in fire drill evacuation procedures always insist that the ‘No Smoking’ rules are observed the lockers which cover the fire stair must be removed there should be clearly marked ‘Exit’ signs in the corridors.

Verb tense Tense indicates the time that action occurs.
There are six verb tenses. The verb tenses fall into two groups simple perfect which occur in progressive/continuous (-ing form) and non-progressive/continuous forms. You can use the term ‘progressive’ or ‘continuous’. In this presentation ‘continuous’ will be used.

Perfect continuous tenses
present continuous I am studying present perfect continuous I have been studying past continuous I was studying past perfect continuous I had been studying future continuous I will be studying future perfect continuous I will have been studying

Non-continuous tenses
Simple tenses Perfect tenses present I study present perfect I have studied past I studied past perfect I had studied future I will study future perfect I will have studied

Non-continuous tenses
The following tenses are not normally used in the present continuous tense (Murphy 2004): like love hate want need prefer. Can you think of any others?

Present tense A present simple tense verb expresses action that is habitual, permanent or a general truth. It may also be used to express a scheduled future action. Example He works late every night. Water boils at 100 degrees centigrade. His plane leaves tonight at ten.

Present tense (cont.) Present continuous tense verbs are used to indicate temporary actions happening now and actions in the present time or future. Example John is presenting his idea to the board. (present or future)

Present perfect tense The present perfect links past and present time, and indicates repeated actions that have happened very recently. It is constructed using the verb ‘to have’ with the past participle. Examples She has lost her keys (and is looking for them now). She has written this twice. They have bought a new house (recently).

Present perfect continuous tense (cont.)
The present perfect continuous tense is used to emphasise that an action started in the past is still happening or to indicate how long something has been happening. Examples We have been working all day (and we are still working now). I have been studying English for five years.

Past simple tense Past simple tense indicates action that began and ended in the past. Add ‘-ed’ with regular verbs: learn/learned. Change the root word with irregular verbs: teach/taught. It may also indicate habitual actions in the past: ‘We watched cartoons when we were young.’

Past continuous tense This tense is used for actions in progress in the past when another action occurred, or for actions in progress at a specific time in the past. Examples We were writing the report when the manager arrived. He was studying at 5 pm. (It is now 10 pm.)

Past perfect tense The past perfect is used for actions that happened in the past prior to another event in the past. Example We had just finished the work when the manager arrived.

Past perfect continuous tense
This tense is used to emphasise the duration of an action in progress prior to another past action or to indicate the length of time of a prior past action. Example The meeting had been going for an hour by the time I arrived.

Simple future tense This tense is used to give predictions that are usual or to make another offer or promise. Examples The bus will come around seven o’clock. I will help you with your report.

Future continuous tense
This tense is used to express an activity that will be happening at a specific future time. Example She will be working on Saturday.

Future perfect tense The future perfect is used to indicate an event that will have happened before another time in the future. Example The staff will have discussed this before you arrive tomorrow. X__________X__________________X___ Now The staff discusses You arrive

Future perfect continuous tense
This tense is used to emphasise the duration of an activity at a specific future time. Example By the end of the month Brian will have been working here for thirty years. X_______________X__________X______ March April 2009 Brian started working Now Next month

Articles ‘The’, ‘An’ and ‘A’ are all articles.
‘The’ is known as a definite article. ‘An’ and ‘A’ are called ‘indefinite articles’.

‘The’ is used when… thinking of something specific
She took the job she was offered. (Referring to a particular job.) something is unique whether individually or as a group The moon circles the earth. referring to an abstract concept The idea that Australian culture is the result of British traditions does not take into account the influence of Asia.

‘The’ is used when… (cont.)
proper nouns are used the Amazon, the United States of America, the Sahara pluralised names are used the Netherlands, the Bahamas public institutions are mentioned the Art Gallery

‘The’ is used when… (cont.)
referring to newspapers the South China News, the Australian placed before a singular noun representing a class of animals or things The Tasmanian devil is facing extinction. The washing machine saved hours of work and changed the lives of those working at home. nouns are followed by ‘of’ The leader of the gang. The president of our club.

First and subsequent references
When referring to something in written text, use an indefinite article (a, an). Example A newspaper has an obligation to seek out and tell the truth. In subsequent references, use the definite article (the). There are situations, however, when the newspaper must determine whether the public’s safety is jeopardised by knowing the truth.

No article needed Several kinds of nouns never use articles:
languages (‘He speaks Chinese’) sports (‘I play netball’) seasons (‘It is cold in winter’) meals (‘We had breakfast’) diseases (‘She has cancer’) abstract nouns (‘We all fear death’)

Correct use of the apostrophe
The apostrophe has only two functions: 1. To show when some letters have been left out. I’ll (I will), you’re (you are), shouldn’t (should not), it’s (it is), I’d (I would). Generally, abbreviations are not used in academic writing, except when reporting direct speech. 2. To indicate possession (ownership) The report’s findings The team’s hard work.

Correct use of the apostrophe (cont.)
Dates do not need an apostrophe. 1980s, NOT 1980’s. Words ending in ‘ss’ put the apostrophe outside the last ‘s’. The boss’ desk.

Word form Words can be used in a variety of forms so they can look similar but their endings are different. A word may be used in a verb form, or as a noun, adjective or adverb.

Verb forms See the section on tense in this chapter. The verbs below are written in the ‘infinitive’; that is, they are written like this before being placed in a particular tense. to explain to plan to introduce to implement to manage to suggest to organise to direct

Nouns Nouns are sometimes referred to as ‘things’ but this is really a little too general as an explanation. There are in fact four kinds of noun in English: Common nouns: employee, manager, desk Proper nouns: Australia, Auckland, Dr Bordia, Mike Abstract nouns: happiness, kindness, respect, love Collective nouns: herd, flock, pack

Adjectives Adjectives are words used to describe nouns. Thomson & Martinet (1990, p. 33) identify six main kinds of adjectives: Demonstrative: this, that, these, those Distributive: each, every, either, neither Quantitative: some, any, no, little, much Qualitative: intelligent, exciting, engaging, interesting Interrogative: which, what, why, whose Possessive: my, your, his, its, our

Adverbs Adverbs are used to describe verbs. According to Thomson & Martinet (1990, p. 47) there are eight different kinds of adverb: Manner: bravely, quickly, gladly Place: up, close, near, there Time: tomorrow, still, yet, later Frequency: regularly, usually, never, only Sentence: certainly, definitely, fortunately Degree: extremely, quite, fairly, very Interrogative: why? where? how? Relative: when, where, why?

Exercise The dynamic accountant quickly became the firm’s most successful finance manager. Identify any verbs, nouns, adjectives or adverbs in this sentence.

Exercise (solution) The dynamic accountant quickly became the firm’s most successful manager. Verb – became Adjective – dynamic, successful, most Adverb – quickly Noun – firm, accountant, manager

Activity 7 Complete activity 8 on p. 108 of your textbook.

Passive tenses The passive tense is used when the writer wishes to emphasise what was done rather than who carried out the action. In contrast an active tense focuses on who or what performed an action.

Passive tenses (cont.) The passive tense is constructed by using the appropriate form of the verb ‘to be’ (e.g. is, are, was, were, has been, had been) and adding a past participle (e.g. studied, raised, criticised, rewritten). Example It was understood that Glen resigned because of bullying at work.

Examples Passive tense Active tense
It is recognised that participating in the knowledge economy is important (Crossman 2005, p. 22). Active tense Both governments and businesses recognise the importance of participating in a knowledge economy (Crossman 2005, p. 22).

Activities 8–10 Complete Activities 9–11 on pp 109–111 of your textbook.

Gerund (‘-ing’) or infinitive
A gerund is a verb that takes an ‘-ing’ form on the ending (e.g. processing, developing, explaining). Compare it to the infinitive verb, which does not refer to a tense, a person or a subject. It is basically a verb that has had no changes made to it and is sometimes preceded by ‘to’ (e.g. ‘to pay’).

Gerund (‘-ing’) or infinitive (cont.)
Some verbs are followed by a second verb in the infinitive and others are followed by a second verb in the gerund form.

Some examples of verbs and expressions followed by a second verb in the gerund form are: finish delay enjoy mind imagine stop regret remember admit deny avoid practise fancy give up go on keen on

Some examples of verbs and expressions followed by a second verb in the gerund form are: want intend refuse arrange plan hope fail afford tend agree offer decide learn need

Gerund (‘ing’) or infinitive (cont.)
Some examples of sentences using a gerund or an infinitive are: Gerund She avoided talking to her. Weng Fai wasn’t keen on going to management meetings. Infinitive She intended to look for another job. He tended to overlook his own errors.

Activities 11 and 12 Complete Activities 12 and 13 on pp. 112–113 of your textbook.

So, neither and nor When expressing agreement, ‘so’ is used in response to positive statements and ‘neither’ or ‘nor’ are used in response to negative statements. Positive statement ‘I believe that ethical behaviour is vital to the company’s credibility.’ Response ‘So do I’. (If you disagreed with the speaker you would say ‘I don’t!’ meaning I don’t agree that ethical behaviour is always vital to a company’s credibility.)

So, neither and nor (cont.)
Negative statement ‘I don’t think she should borrow so much from the bank.’ Response ‘Nor do I.’ ‘She doesn’t check all my references.’ ‘Neither does my lecturer.’

So, neither and nor (cont.)
Neither/nor are used when two negative statements are connected. Example She neither comes to class nor hands in her assignments. (She doesn’t come to class and she doesn’t hand in her assignments.)

Still and yet ‘Still’ is used to indicate when an action or situation is continuing. It usually goes in the middle of the sentence after the verb ‘to be’. ‘Still’ is more often used with the affirmative (positive statements) or questions. Examples Is he still drinking heavily? They are still paying bribes even though it has been forbidden by head office.

Still and yet (cont.) ‘Yet’ is used when we ask if something has or has not happened, usually in questions or negative sentences. ‘Yet’ often goes at the end of the sentence, after the verb. ‘Yet’ means that something continues to be the case up until the time of speaking. Examples Has the closing date for applications closed yet? Alexander hasn’t applied to any universities yet.

References Crossman, J. 2005, ‘Strangers and bedfellows; The relationship between the commercialisation of Australian universities and international education’, HERDSA news, vol. 25 no. 3, pp 22–26. Thomson, A. & Martinet, A. 1990, A practical English grammar, 4th edn, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Chapter 6 Writing genres
‘How we are expected to write affects what we can write about.’

Learning objectives On completion of this chapter students will know how to: identify key features of academic and business texts recognise the difference between formal and informal register use language appropriate to business settings, taking into account issues of power.

What does ‘genre’ mean? ‘Genre’ means style, kind or type.
Usually, ‘genre’ refers to a type of art or literature. It can also refer to ways of speaking, types of movies or plays, or any written document. In this context, ‘genre’ refers to the various types of texts that students need to learn and master.

Academic genres The most common genre (type of text for assessment) at Australian universities is the essay. In business there are other genres which are just as important: reports business letters communication.

Context and genre Factors that impact on genre:
situation audience purpose of the text. Consider each factor in relation to the essay genre. Now think about the business context. How is it different to the academic context?

Business context Business reports written in workplace:
audience = supervisor or ‘superior’ usually someone with power much at stake for the organisation All documents have ‘regular, predictable patterns of organisation’ (Swales & Feak 1994, p. 10).

Activity 1 See Activity 1 on pp 133–140 of your textbook.
Work in pairs. Divide your page into five columns with the headings ‘personal ’, ‘business ’, ‘business letter’, ‘essay’ and ‘report’. Examine each text and identify the different features. List the features of each text, using the suggestions in the annotations and at the bottom of the activity.

Applying knowledge of genres
In your business studies you will need to write in different genres, depending on the course, assessment and preference of your lecturers. Sometimes the genres will be ‘mixed’. Always be very clear about which genre is expected before submitting work for assessment.

‘The vocabulary shift’
Need to move from informal to formal writing (academic and business contexts) Choice between verb + preposition or a single verb (single verb is more formal). Example: The manager looked at the way tension builds up during performance review meetings. (less formal style) The manager investigated the way tension develops during performance review meetings. (more formal style)

Activities 2 and 3 Complete activities 2 and 3 on pp. 141–142 of your textbook.

More advice on formality
Avoid contractions (e.g. won’t = will not). Use the more appropriate formal negative forms. Example Do not write: The analysis didn’t yield any new results. Write: The analysis yielded no new results. Avoid run-on expressions such as ‘and so forth’ and ‘etc’. Avoid using the first person ‘I’ and do not address the reader as ‘you’. Focus on the information rather than the writer or reader.

More advice on formality (cont.)
Avoid asking rhetorical questions such as ‘What can be done?’ Use statements instead, such as ‘X needs to be considered’. Do not place adverbs at the beginning or end of the sentence. Examples Do not write: Then the solution can be discarded. Write: The solution can then be discarded. Do not write: The profits have increased slowly. Write: The profits have slowly increased.

Summary Different genres (texts) have distinct requirements in terms of structure, development, formality and acknowledgment of sources. By learning and using the particular features of texts, writers can produce easy-to-read documents. The context, particularly the power relations between the writer and receiver, affect the formality of the document.

Chapter 7 Report writing

Learning objectives On completion of this chapter students will know how to: prepare a research plan for a report prepare a writing plan for a report present persuasive arguments supplemented with facts and references write a well presented formal report.

Purpose of reports Reports can be written for business or research purposes. Institutions and individuals depend on previous reports to make current decisions. Reports can be ongoing or final in nature. Reports should contain an objective representation of a situation.

Everyday reports Everyday reports that tend to be simpler and shorter in length include: justification reports progress reports periodic reports incident reports. Some of these reports can be in oral format.

Types of report Information: a short and periodic report
Analytic: based on research and analysis leading to recommendations Integrated: combines both approaches

Standard formal reports
All reports must meet certain criteria: The content should be accurate. The purpose of the report should be apparent to the reader. The organisation should be clear to the reader. The discussion in the report should be coherent. The presentation of the report should be neat. The writing style should be clear and concise.

Structure of reports Reports are composed of sections which are introduced with headings (e.g. Executive Summary, Introduction, etc.). The layout is designed to help the reader understand the discussion in the report.

Decimal numbering system
Findings (bold 18pt) Section 4.1 (bold 14pt) Subsection 4.11 (bold 12pt) Paragraph (bold, italics, 12pt) Paragraph 4.112 Text, text, text, text, text, (11pt).

Key components of a report
A report should include the following parts: Title page Table of contents Executive Summary Introduction Literature review (if necessary) or Methodology Findings Discussion/Analysis Conclusion Recommendations Appendices (if appropriate) References (if used).

Name of writer and organisation
Title page The title page of a report should contain all the relevant information, centered on the page: Title of report Name of writer and organisation Contact details Date

Executive Summary The Executive Summary is the most important part of a report. It occurs on the first page, before the Introduction. It condenses the important information of the report. Readers who do not have the time or desire to read the whole report will understand its discussion from the Executive Summary.

Executive Summary (cont.)
The Executive Summary can also be called a summary, abstract or synopsis. It should be written last when every part of the report has been completed and the writer knows exactly what has been discussed.

Executive Summary (cont.)
The Executive Summary includes: purpose of the report scope of the report methods used for the research major findings of the research conclusions of the researcher/s recommendations.

Table of contents The table of contents specifies the page numbers of sections in the report using roman numerals.

Stating the purpose of a report
The purpose or aim of a report needs to be stated clearly and concisely in the first paragraph of the introduction to the report. This will make the reason for the report clear to the reader.

Introduction The introduction often uses three subheadings:
background purpose scope. It helps the reader understand the whole report. Write the introduction after you have a comprehensive understanding of the issue being reported on.

Introduction (cont.) The introduction should state:
the authorisation and purpose of the report the scope of the report any limitations of the report.

Findings/analysis Contains the findings in full (facts only from data). Includes additional detail on the issue. Provides financial/numerical information in text and tables, if appropriate. Some reports integrate findings with analysis. Others have a separate section for analysis.

Conclusion The conclusion is a short summary or restatement of the main issue/s. May use dot points for ease of reading. Use parallel grammar. (Start dot point with a verb in the same tense.)

Recommendation(s) Suggests possible action in the future.
Provides you with the opportunity to think of creative solutions, based on the findings and conclusions in the report. Must not include any new information. Should be given in order of importance (i.e. the most important should go first). Often uses dot points.

Conclusions and recommendations
There is a link between findings, conclusions and recommendations. Findings are factual and verifiable. Conclusions are your own ideas that you deduce from the findings. Recommendations are what you want done.

Conclusions and recommendations (cont.)
Examples Findings During Orientation Week all first-year students are given a brief introduction to the workshop area and a talk on safety procedures. Some students start the course at second-year level and thus miss the sessions on safety measures. Conclusion Those students who have not been given formal safety precaution lessons are at risk. Recommendation Ensure that all students are given a proper workshop introduction as a prerequisite to being allowed to use the machinery in the workshop.

Language Formal Impartial
Precise (avoid jargon and long, complicated sentences) Simple (avoid abstract and obscure words) Impersonal Never use the first person (I, we, us, you, the author). The reader is more interested in the issue than the person writing about the issue.

Language (cont.) Example Should be written in the third person:
We have analysed the financial information for both companies and it shows that different methods of depreciation are used by each company. Should be written in the third person: An analysis of the financial information shows that different methods of depreciation are used by each company for the major assets.

Expressing judgment Findings are factual, whereas conclusions and recommendations allow you to put forward judgments and possible interpretations. Your interpretation or judgment can be expressed either by modal verbs and auxiliaries such as may, might, could or modal adverbs such as possibly, probably, certainly.

Presentation Use good quality, white A4 paper.
Leave space for big margins: top, bottom and both sides. Use double spacing between paragraphs and sections. Use single spacing between lines.

Presentation (cont.) Start each chapter on a new page.
Place headings on the left margin, but you can centre the Executive Summary and the title page. Number all pages. Keep a copy for yourself.

Checklist for editing Have you: included a title page?
stated the purpose of the report? used the correct format and layout? written an introduction that: explains the purpose of the report? defines the problem? guides the reader to the main section of the report?

Checklist for editing (cont.)
written a findings/discussion section that: uses headings and subheadings appropriately? uses paragraphs that aid the flow and analysis of the findings? uses dot points appropriately? presents factual and objective information? analyses the findings? written a conclusion that: draws the ideas together? summarises the contents and findings?

Checklist for editing (cont.)
suggested recommendations that offer solutions to any problems suggested in the report? included appendices, if necessary? included a reference list in alphabetical order?

Chapter 8 Business document writing

Learning objectives On completion of this chapter students will know how to: write a formal business letter using the full block format differentiate between letters of inquiry, letters of complaint, response letters and sales letters recognise the features and purposes of communicating via construct a standard use a range of practices to ensure successful business communication.

Business letters Business letters are written for many reasons:
to initiate action to inform to request to persuade.

Steps to a successful business letter
To write a successful business letter follow these steps: Determine the purpose of your letter. Write a plan. Draft and redraft the letter. Edit and proofread.

Qualities of a business letter
A business letter should have the following six qualities: clarity concreteness completeness conviction conciseness courtesy.

Standard components of a business letter
The letterhead (sender’s address) The date Receiver’s address Salutation Subject heading Body of the letter Sign off Personal signature and name/title of sender

Body of the letter The body of the letter should relate to the subject heading. It should provide information logically (i.e. in a sequence). Different issues should be discussed in separate paragraphs.

Style of letter Although there are several recognised styles for a business letter, the full block style is widely recognised. When working for an organisation ensure that you are familiar with the in-house style of the organisation, which may be a variation of the full block style.

Types of business letter
Letter of inquiry Response to letter of inquiry Purchase orders Sales letter

Letters of inquiry Provide a clear, specific question.
Give a reason for the inquiry. Are polite, but not servile.

Response to letter of inquiry
Use standard letter layout. Always use a subject heading. Begin by referring to the original inquiry (be specific). Start with ‘Thank you for your inquiry …’ Detail action you have taken in response to the inquiry. If no action has (yet) been taken, still respond immediately to the inquiry.

Purchase orders Follow standard letter layout.
Provide specific and complete information. Provide information about an acceptable alternative. Give full instructions for delivery. Provide payment details. Start with ‘Please …’

Sales letters Sales letters are different to other business letters.
They have two purposes: information and advertising. Letters have to be persuasive but not aggressive. A follow-up letter may be needed after a certain period of time.

Persuasive writing The AIDA principle: A: Attention I: Interest
D: Desire A: Action

Attention Get the reader to pay attention.
State a problem that affects the reader. Promise a benefit. Use an emotional appeal. Introduce your primary appeal. Ask a question (that can’t be answered yes or no).

Interest Show the reader your answer to the problem you raised in the first section. Provide a description of the reader enjoying the benefits you mentioned in the first section. Answer the questions you raised. Provide a clear transition from attention to desire.

Desire Move the reader from ‘like to have’ to ‘really want’.
Justify the reader’s desire with emotional appeals (feelings) or rational appeals (thinking ability) (e.g. clothes sold on the basis of durability or fashion).

Action Tell the reader what to do.
Give a reason for acting now (e.g. free set of steak knives). Provide aids (e.g. envelopes). Make reference to primary appeal to convince the reader they are doing the right thing.

Receiver’s psychological needs
Letters cannot always provide good news and fabulous opportunities! Sometimes letters are written to provide unwelcome news. The following slides provide strategies for writing letters that take into account the receiver’s psychological needs.

Make neutral comments Indicate some form of agreement that is very general and will not alienate the reader. Let the reader know the subject of the letter to add meaning to later information. Don’t imply ‘yes’ or ‘no’.

Provide explanation Give your reasons for the decision (note that reasons precede denial). Increase the chance of the reader understanding and accepting your reasons. If possible, emphasise reasons that might benefit the reader.

Explain refusal Give clear and apparent reasons for refusal.
Write refusal after a neutral statement (e.g. ‘Thank you for your application. I regret to inform you that your application was not successful at this instance due to …’).

End positively End on an upbeat note. Try to regain good feeling.
Can you suggest an alternative? Show the reader you remain interested.

What to avoid Avoid the following:
implying that the request will be granted being overly apologetic falling back on company policy talking down to the reader being so general that the reason does not relate to the refusal emphasising the refusal more than is necessary making a direct negative statement of refusal using active voice (e.g. poor—‘I deny your application for credit’, better—‘Credit was denied’)

Letter of complaint A letter of complaint should be rational rather than emotional. Give specific information about the issue (e.g. the product, the particular fault). Be specific about how you want your complaint dealt with (e.g. ask directly for a refund or exchange). Be succinct. Avoid being rude or abusive. Stick to the facts.

Responses to letters of complaint
Responses to letters of complaints should be polite but also firm if need be. Acknowledge the error (if there is one). Be courteous. Provide background information about how the error occurred (if appropriate). Offer to investigate the matter further. Provide specific information about how you will rectify the problem. If the customer has made a mistake, courteously provide the correct information (right at the start).

Cultural sensitivity and business letters
Businesses today are increasingly working across cultural boundaries. The issue of cultural sensitivity has therefore become significant. Awareness of cultural norms in business writing in other cultures will assist in writing appropriate documents.

Email communication Email is a new form of business communication.
Communicating in a computer-mediated environment requires different skills to traditional document writing. is now the key communication medium in contemporary workplaces. It is a ‘hybrid medium’, uniting elements of both spoken and written communication (Wood & Smith 2001, p. 9).

Email communication (cont.)
Communicators are less inhibited and show less differentiation between people of different status (cited in Wood & Smith 2001, p. 72). The Internet is liberating because users can play with various roles and disclose or not disclose certain information (Wood & Smith 2001; Turkle 1995). has the potential to provide a new type of communication.

Email communication (cont.)
Benefits of include: speed the sense of identity afforded to the communicators bridging the psychological gap between communicators in ways which other channels of communication do not allow (Sunderland 2002, pp. 245–246).

Activity 1 Working with another student, consider the following questions: On average, how many s do you receive every day? How often do you write a letter and send it using the traditional mail service? How is your experience with business documents different to your parents’ and grandparents’ experiences when they were studying or first started working?

Email: new communication
Many hard-copy business documents have been superseded by the fast, efficient use of . There is still a need for formality in all professional communication. A more formal style is needed when: the receiver holds a more senior position in the organisational hierarchy than you the receiver is outside your organisation the receiver is unlikely to be familiar with the jargon or terminology used in your area of expertise there is a possibility that the will be referred to by others or archived for future use.

Activity 2 Complete activity 8 on pp. 184–185 of your textbook.

Five parts to an email Subject line
s can be divided into five main parts: Subject line Use a verb phrase to briefly summarise the content of the message. Too wordy: ‘We will have our monthly meeting on Wednesday to discuss the new occupational, health and safety policy.’ Too brief: ‘Meeting’. Appropriate: ‘Meeting on Wednesday to discuss OH&S policy’.

Five parts to an email (cont.)
Salutation Simple salutations are still important, even when you know the recipient well (e.g. Dear Kim, Hi John). Once an ‘conversation’ has started, you may omit the salutation. Salutations in s still require some acknowledgment of status (e.g. use titles such as Dr). Salutations assist the reader to find the beginning of messages in long threads.

Opening State the main idea immediately in the first line. This is known as ‘frontloading’, where the key information is given immediately after the salutation. Also referred to as a ‘direct opening’.

Body Provide any necessary background information and logically explain the main idea. Use short paragraphs, dot points and headings. For complicated or very formal information, provide an attachment. Sales letters are usually incorporated into the body of the .

Close Summarise key points. Request action or provide a closing thought. Include a ‘goodwill message’. See the annotated examples of s provided in Chapter 6: Writing genres.

Activity 3 Complete activity 9 on p. 186 of your textbook.

Common errors Hasty responses that have not been carefully thought out. Responses that do not take into account the computer knowledge of the receiver. A discourteous or overly familiar tone. Traditional routine letter openings that sound insincere. Obscure, unfamiliar words or jargon.

Common email errors (cont.)
Lengthy sentences, or text with no paragraph breaks. Negative, pessimistic content. A closing that does not reiterate the key purpose of the . An assumption that the receiver checks their inbox as often as the sender does. A sender who does not give a name and can only be identified by a meaningless address (e.g.

guidelines Make the subject line short and meaningful (never leave it empty). Always include a salutation. Make your message inviting (use short line lengths and paragraphs; edit typographical errors). Be brief. Use only one screen. Place key information first. For business s do not use emoticons, initials or SMS abbreviations (e.g. ; FYI, R U ok?). Use attachments carefully.

Email guidelines (cont.)
Hold your temper. Avoid using capitals for emphasis, as this is like SHOUTING. Do not use as a way of avoiding contact. Resist using humour. Assume that all business s are monitored. Proofread carefully, as in all business communication. Choose ‘reply’ or ‘reply all’ carefully.

Email guidelines (cont.)
Use identifying labels such as ‘urgent’ or ‘action’ with caution. Set the context for your . Respect confidentiality. Never send spam. threads encourage brief responses. Always close your appropriately. Create a standard signature block for all s. Include your full name and contact details.

Summary Formal business letters remain an important medium for business communication. Most businesses prefer the full block style of letter, which incorporates easy to remember standard features. All business communication documents need clarity, concreteness, completeness, conviction, conciseness and courtesy. Business writers need to consider the psychological needs of the receiver.

Summary (cont.) The AIDA (Attention, Interest, Desire, Action) model is useful for persuasive letter writing. Cultural sensitivity is important for all business communication. has replaced many traditional business documents but still needs to follow basic principles of effective communication, including following a standard format. Always consider the advantages and disadvantages of before using it over traditional business documents.

Chapter 9 Oral presentation skills

Learning objectives On completion of this chapter students will know how to: identify the most appropriate presentation style use strategies to engage and interact with an audience prepare effective slides use knowledge about non-verbal factors to improve a presentation appreciate the value of preparation understand the importance of voice in presenting effectively.

Public speaking Public speaking skills are increasingly important given a greater focus on information-related skills. In many universities public and professional speaking skills is considered to be an important graduate quality. The good news is that effective public speaking can be learned!

Overcoming fear Anxiety can be offset by:
visualising a successful presentation practising thoroughly ‘acting’ positive and confident, as an audience will ‘mirror’ your approach.

Activities 1 and 2 Complete Activities 1 and 2 on p. 194–195 of your textbook.

Preparing for a presentation
Even short, informal speeches require preparation. Never agree to do a presentation and then just turn up, hoping that the ideas will come to you as you speak! Videoing a practice speech provides an opportunity to gain slightly more objectivity by seeing yourself as others do.

Windschuttle & Elliott
Windschuttle & Elliott (1999, p. 356) suggest that preparation will be rewarded in several ways: Audiences appreciate well prepared speakers. Prepared speakers are more persuasive. Well prepared speakers are more likely to satisfy audience expectations. Prepared presenters gain confidence for next time.

Activities 3–5 Complete Activities 3, 4 and 5 on pp. 195–198 of your textbook.

Group presentations Practice is even more important for group presentations. Coordinating with a group of other speakers requires commitment and teamwork. Decide which speakers will be responsible for which parts of the presentation and convey this information to the audience. Work out the sequence of speakers.

Group presentations (cont.)
There should be a consistent style running through all the slides as this helps the audience to follow your presentation. Be very familiar with each other’s presentations. In a business situation, if one person is absent the other speakers will have to take responsibility for that part of the presentation.

Coordinate your overheads or visuals. Use the same font and background on slides. If using an overhead projector, consider asking one group member to be responsible for changing overheads or clicking PowerPoint slides. Decide whether questions will be taken individually or by a spokesperson for the whole team.

Plan for transitions from one speaker to another. This can be achieved smoothly by using statements such as: ‘Building on Lisa’s comments …’ or ‘Angie has explained some of the challenges the project presents. Now I would like to point out some possible ways of responding to them’

While one member is presenting ensure the audience see other team members exhibiting interest in the presentation rather than scratching, chatting, stretching and preparing their own part. A group presentation should be coherent and seamless as though it had all been prepared by one individual.

Activity 6 Complete Activity 6 on pp. 198–199 of your textbook.

Different kinds of speeches and presentations
Windschuttle & Elliott (1999, p. 357) list four different types of speech: speeches that are read (it is difficult to maintain eye contact with an audience if attention is fixed on the page) speeches that are rehearsed and memorised the extemporaneous speech that is prepared thoroughly but the speaker performs ‘spontaneously’, using only prompts/notes. the impromptu speech, which is a speech delivered without preparation.

Different kinds of speeches and presentations (cont.)
Summers & Smith (2006, p. 79) make a distinction between two types of speeches: those that inform and instruct, and those that persuade and convince.

Informing and instructing
The following advice is useful in all presentations but particularly where the purpose is to inform and instruct. Use simple, clear vocabulary. Avoid jargon and long, complicated explanations. A clear structure is especially important for this type of speech. Always support statements with research by providing the audience with a reference (e.g. use phrases such as: ‘Wong’s 1999 study showed clearly that …’). Remember to give people time to read and think about any statistics or other more complex graphics that you show them.

Persuading and convincing
The role of a persuading presentation is to influence the beliefs and attitudes of an audience, perhaps with the intention of selling a product. There are four techniques that a presenter can use to persuade an audience and gain their attention, especially early on in the presentation.

Persuading and convincing (cont.)
Rhetorical questions Questions asked by the presenter that don’t actually require a response from the audience (e.g. ‘Doesn’t everyone hate advertising?’). Quotations or surprising statistics ‘Business, you know, may bring money but friendship hardly ever does.’ (Jane Austen/Mr Knightly, Persuasion). Statistical information can also be very useful for drawing attention to the importance of a topic.

Anecdotes ‘After a long day at work, I had to sort through a pile of mail … and all of it turned out to be advertising!’ An anecdote is really about simply telling a story. The most effective anecdotes are those that make it clear what the real point of a story is. Speakers often draw on humour in relating anecdotes, but take care! Not all people find the same things funny. Avoid offensive language and racist, sexist or religious jokes. Tolerance and respect should be the guiding principle concerning what is communicated and how.

Personal testimony A persuasive speech draws on the emotions of the audience, perhaps by reminding them of their allegiances (e.g. ‘All of us love shopping …’). It is still important to provide a logical and balanced argument based on research—even if it appeals to people’s feelings.

Researching venue and audience
Arrive early to find out some information beforehand. Find out what technology is available. Always have a back-up plan in case one kind of technology fails (e.g. PowerPoint in OHT form, a USB, CD-ROM).

Finding out about the audience
How many people are expected? What is the seating arrangement? Is the seating flexible if you wish people to break into discussion groups? Where is the speaker expected to stand?

Finding out about the audience (cont.)
Who will be in your audience? Occupation, age, gender, cultural background or special interests will all affect the reception you receive. Find out how the audience feels about the topic. Are they attending your presentation because they feel enthusiastic or depressed? Will their attendance be required or voluntary?

Structure and presentation
An oral presentation usually has an introduction, a body and a conclusion. Introduction A short outline/summary of the whole presentation Gains the attention of your audience quickly. According to Ober (2007, p. 283), a speaker has 90 seconds to capture the interest of the audience!

Structure and presentation (cont.)
Body Make your main points in the body. Don’t try to give too much information but offer to provide additional information after the presentation. Each point is like a paragraph in an essay and will require a topic sentence. Use transitional devices that include connecting words such as ‘in addition’, ‘furthermore’ or phrases that refer forward and back in the text to show the connection between ideas.

Structure and presentation (cont.)
Conclusion Should take up 10 per cent of your speaking time. Summarise and re-emphasise the main points. ‘Signpost’ the fact that the presentation is almost over. Use suitable endings such as ‘in conclusion’, ‘to sum up’, ‘finally’, ‘as I have demonstrated’. Never finish a presentation by saying ‘that’s all I have to say’ or ‘that’s it’. The only acceptable way to conclude your presentation is to say ‘thank you’.

Physical factors influencing a presentation
Body language conveys a powerful message that is even more important than words. To express confidence stand straight and pull your shoulders back a little. Some movement is natural but avoid pacing or swaying from side to side. Do not fold your arms: it can look defensive. Do not keep hands in pockets: it can seem furtive or too informal.

Physical factors influencing a presentation (cont.)
Avoid habitual movements such as scratching and ‘praying gestures’. Ask a friend to observe or video you practising to reveal any movements you need to avoid. Many speakers say ‘ugh’ quite frequently. Locker (2006, p. 481) suggests these sounds can be reduced with practice. Smiling usually helps to develop a positive relationship between a presenter and the audience.

Practise making eye contact with each member of the audience for a moment, but avoid focusing on one person for longer than a second or two. According to a study cited by Locker (2006, p. 479), eye contact with the audience creates an impression of being better informed, friendlier, more honest and more experienced. Never stare at the back of the room or out the window!

Confirm that everyone in the audience can hear you. Vary your volume, pitch (‘music’ of the voice) and pace to add interest. A higher pitch indicates excitement and a lower one is used for emphasis. Pace refers to how quickly you speak (Taylor 2005, p. 387). Try saying the same things using different pitches to see if any are more effective than others.

Decisions about what to wear for a presentation depend on your audience and the situation (e.g. formal presentations require formal clothing). Taylor (2005, p. 385) suggests dressing more formally than an audience because it helps you feel more confident and professional. Wearing long sleeves also projects authority and professionalism.

Interacting with your audience
Interactive presentations can be fun and interesting. Some ways of interacting with an audience include: using questions and answers asking for volunteers asking people to respond by raising hands asking members of an audience to discuss their own experience in relation to the topic.

Answering questions If you need more time to answer a difficult question a useful tactic is to ask the speaker to repeat it (Locker 2006, p. 482). It is also acceptable to ask individuals to rephrase a question if you do not understand it. However irritating, always answer questions even if they have already been covered in the presentation. Avoid embarrassing anyone when responding to a question.

Answering questions (cont.)
Locker (2006, p. 482) also cautions presenters against responding to individuals with comments such as ‘That’s a very good question’, since it suggests other questions were less useful. Anticipate some questions beforehand in order to develop confidence and appear informed. If an individual is rude, keep your cool and maintain a professional approach. Ultimately, someone else’s rudeness will reflect badly on them rather than you.

Summary Practising helps you to keep within your time limit and contributes to a smooth, coherent presentation. It will also reduce your anxiety. Structure your presentation into an introduction, body and conclusion. Use a variety of quality visuals to enhance audience interest.

Summary (cont.) In group presentations the following needs to be discussed beforehand: order of the presentation transitions from one member of the group to another becoming familiar with each other’s work and how questions will be responded to. There are different kinds of speeches. Those that are read, those that are rehearsed and memorised, the extemporaneous speech and the impromptu speech. The purpose of a speech also varies.

Summary (cont.) Research the venue and the audience thoroughly.
Find ways to interact with the audience. Stylistic devices can be used to influence an audience. These include asking rhetorical questions, using quotes, sharing anecdotes and providing personal testimonies. Pay attention to physical aspects of your presentation, such as posture, gestures, personal mannerisms, facial expressions, eye contact, clothing and voice.

Chapter 10 Employment communication

Learning objectives On completion of this chapter students will know how to: prepare a résumé write a cover letter prepare for an interview.

Personal résumé The personal résumé is also referred to as:
a curriculum vitae (CV) a personal profile a personal information sheet a personal inventory biodata.

Personal résumé (cont.)
Bishop-Firth (2004, p. 39) recommends keeping your résumé to two pages, highlighting only relevant information. The aim of a résumé is not to document your life story but to get an interview. Employers often only skim read résumés when making their initial selections so ensure that the layout and headings make the document easy to read quickly and to find the relevant information.

Personal résumé (cont.)
There are five main headings to a résumé: Heading Education Work experience Extracurricular activities Referees

Heading The heading includes: your name home address telephone numbers
address.

Heading (cont.) In the past, date of birth, marital and health status were included in a résumé but in many countries, including Australia, it is now illegal for the employer to ask for this information and it is therefore not needed. You do not need to write the words ‘Name’, ‘Address’ or even ‘Résumé’ in the heading because the information tells the reader what it is.

Education Deciding whether to place ‘Education’ or ‘Work Experience’ first in the résumé depends on what you wish to highlight. Do not include information about your primary school education. Include a brief account of secondary and tertiary university education, including dates, place of study and final qualifications. You may wish to mention briefly any outstanding achievements or leadership positions.

Work experience Include information about:
the title of the role the years you held the position the name and location of the employer. Some people group employment into different categories depending upon experience—e.g. an engineer may work in industry for a number of years, then take a job lecturing in a university. In this case, it would be appropriate to have one heading for ‘Engineering Positions’ and another for ‘Educational Positions’.

Work experience (cont.)
It is quite acceptable for a recent university graduate to include casual work experience in a résumé. Most employers value some experience. You do not need to explain why you left a previous position but it is a good idea to prepare a suitable response in case you are asked.

Work experience (cont.)
Use parallel construction in presenting your responsibilities. ‘Parallel construction’ refers to a consistent use of the same grammatical form after a bullet point. It is better to use a verb form (e.g. ‘Managed’ or ‘Managing’) rather than the noun form (‘Management of …’) because the verb form is more powerful.

Ordering of events There are two ways to list education or work experience: Chronological order – list from the earliest event until the present. Reverse chronological order – list from the most recent event and work backwards in time. Reverse chronological order is most common.

Activities 3–5 Complete Activities 3–5 on p. 214 of your textbook.

Power words Résumés need to be checked carefully to ensure that particular words make an impact on the reader. Some words are more powerful in creating a good impression of the candidate because they give the impression that an individual is proactive rather than passive.

Extracurricular activities
The ways in which you pass your time when you are not studying or working are referred to in a résumé as ‘extracurricular activities’ or ‘interests’. An employer is much more likely to be interested in your interests if you can relate these pastimes to the requirements of your position.

Extracurricular activities (cont.)
‘SA Rowing Team for Senior Girls’ is much less impressive than the following: ‘As a member of the senior girls’ rowing team I have developed the skills necessary to work in a group dedicated to focusing on long-term challenges and maintaining high levels of motivation, even when training in adverse weather conditions and at unsociable hours. Coaching junior teams has also assisted me in developing leadership skills.’

Referees Most applications require a list of two or three referees who will verify the information provided in an application. Referees need to know the applicant well and be familiar with their qualifications and abilities. An applicant should consider carefully who can be trusted to represent them in a positive and informed manner.

Referees (cont.) Sometimes companies may telephone referees believing that they are more likely to be open about strengths and weaknesses. A referee who has been approached in good time as a courtesy is more likely to be positive and efficient in carrying out their role, especially if they know in advance the requirements of the position and have been reminded how an applicant is able to fulfil them.

Personal profile A ‘personal profile’ or ‘personal statement’ placed right after the heading in the résumé highlights your key strengths and qualifications. As one of the first statements in a résumé, it can influence an employer’s impressions in powerful ways.

Personal profile (cont.)
A personal profile can be written in the first person (using ‘I’). Example I am a highly motivated, well-qualified accounting graduate with a strong interest in international finance. The personal profile can also be written in the third person. A highly motivated, well-qualified accounting graduate with a strong interest in international finance.

Personal profile (cont.)
Finally, a personal statement can be written in the form of an employment objective: Example To acquire a challenging position in the finance industry, with an opportunity for career advancement.

Personal integrity Although it can sometimes be tempting to exaggerate personal achievement, it is likely to be found out at some point. Regaining the respect and trust of colleagues and supervisors is likely to prove very difficult. Personal integrity is a valuable asset to a prospective employer and one way to begin demonstrating integrity is through the application process.

Providing evidence Provide evidence to support claims (e.g. state that you have a certificate in Microsoft Office Skills rather than simply indicating that you are ‘excellent in Microsoft Office Skills’).

Sending résumés via the Internet
Keep ed résumés short with only a brief summary of key points. Embed your résumé into the message as some recruiters are less likely to open attachments from unknown sources. Design the résumé so that the first information on the screen is sufficiently attractive for the reader to want to scroll down further.

Sending résumés via the Internet (cont.)
Do not send a résumé over the Internet to multiple companies unless you have been invited to do so as this is known as ‘spamming’ and is not likely to provide a positive impression of you. Remember that sending your personal details via is always a potential security risk.

A constantly evolving document
Add important information to your résumé as you progress in your working and personal life to save time when you next apply for a new job. This will also provide opportunities for you to reflect on the direction you are taking in your career. Each job application will require a slightly different response depending on the requirements of the position, so do not send out the same résumé for a variety of positions.

Cover letter The purpose of a cover letter is to:
introduce an applicant provide some key information about how an applicant is able to meet an employer’s requirements draw the recruiter’s attention to the résumé. A résumé is usually accompanied by a cover letter. In some cases an application form is also required.

Cover letter (cont.) The cover letter provides the employer with a first impression of an individual and therefore needs to ‘stand out’. Use your résumé as a basis for writing the cover letter.

Preparing for an interview
allows an employer to explore an applicant’s qualifications in more detail provides interviewees with an opportunity to decide whether the organisation is one where they are likely to be happy and to ‘fit in’. Preparing for an interview will improve your performance on the day. Anticipate questions and plan truthful and impressive answers.

Different kinds of interviews
‘One-to-one’ interviews Interviews where the individual applicant faces a panel. Group interviews to assess how individuals interact with others and demonstrate effective interpersonal skills. Stress interviews designed to see how applicants cope with stress. Respond in a calm and assertive way and rephrase inflammatory questions so that they can be framed more neutrally.

Video conference interviews
Try to phone the interviewer before the video conference to develop a rapport. Arrive in good time to become accustomed to the equipment. Speak clearly at a normal speed. Avoid slouching. Avoid looking down when being videoed. Try to look lively and alert (Bovée & Thill 2005, p. 561).

Interview stages Stage 1 usually involves building rapport and reducing nervousness. Appear friendly but professional. Stage 2 involves making opening statements. The interviewer provides some general information about the organisation and the advertised position. According to some commentators, interviewers make 50 per cent of their decision within the first 60 seconds (Bovée & Thill 2005, p. 571).

Interview stages Stage 3 is the main part of the interview. It involves either ‘open’ or ‘closed’ questions. Open questions invite applicants to respond at length. Open questions often begin with ‘Why’, ‘How’, ‘Please describe …’ or requests such as ‘Tell me about yourself’. Avoid rambling. A closed question is usually used to verify information and is answered with ‘yes’ or ‘no’. Some closed questions are actually open (e.g. ‘So you tend to prefer working in groups?’). The main part of the interview usually lasts between 10 and 25 minutes.

Closure of an interview
Closure is indicated when you are asked if you have any questions or when you are told when the outcome of the interview will be communicated. An applicant who is able to end on a positive yet assertive note is likely to make a good impression (e.g. ‘This job really seems to require all the kinds of things I enjoy working on’).

Closure of an interview (cont.)
It is inadvisable to raise the question of salary but, if you are asked, be prepared to discuss the issue.

Activities 19–21 Complete Activities 19, 20 and 21 on pp. 229–230 of your textbook.

Careful editing of the résumé
Edit carefully to create a favourable impression. An application is seen as a reflection of you as a person. Employers’ number one pet hate is poor spelling (Eggert 1997, p. 71).

A final word Practise to diffuse nervousness.
Prepare answers ‘out loud’. Review any achievements that are likely to be of interest to the employer. Visualise a successful performance. You do not have to pretend to be someone you are not, but as Kitty Locker (2006, p. 555) advises, ‘Be your best self at the interview’.

Summary Keep your résumé to two pages with headings that make the document easy to read quickly. Use reverse chronological order (starting with the most recent activity first). Use powerful and positive words and provide specific evidence of any strengths or skills. When writing about interests, ensure their relevance to the employer is emphasised. Write personal profiles carefully because they provide a first impression.

Summary (cont.) Only use referees that you trust and who know you well. Research up-to-date ideas on writing an effective application. Edit your résumé and cover letter carefully. Be prepared for interviews that explore your qualifications and experience more deeply. Prepare by anticipating questions and planning answers.

Summary (cont.) Take into account the different kinds of interviews possible in your preparations. Research an organisation thoroughly prior to making an application or attending an interview. It will provide you with valuable information and impress your interviewer. Remember: you don’t have to pretend to be someone you aren’t but you should be your best self at the interview.

References Bishop-Firth, R. 2004, The ultimate CV for managers and professionals, How To Books, Oxford. Bovée, C. & Thill, J. 2005, Business communication today, International Edition, Pearson Prentice Hall, Sydney. Eggert, M. 1997, Creating a successful résumé, Simon & Schuster, Sydney. Locker, K. 2006, Business and administrative communication, McGraw-Hill Irwin, Sydney.

References (cont.) Satterwhite, M. & Olson-Sutton, J. 2003, Business communication at work, McGraw-Hill Glencoe, New York. Windschuttle, K. & Elliott, E. 1999, Writing, researching, communicating: communication skills for the information age, 3rd edn, McGraw-Hill, Sydney.

Chapter 11 Intercultural communication

Topic overview Introduction: impact of globalisation
Understanding the term ‘culture’ Defining ‘intercultural communication’ ‘Third space’ communication Strategies for effective intercultural communication

Impact of globalisation
Globalisation has resulted in diverse societies and workplaces. Australia: 43 per cent of the population born overseas or at least one parent born overseas. Over 200 languages are spoken (Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs 2005). Increasing diversity: need to develop intercultural communication competence.

Activity 1 Form groups of three to four students and discuss the following questions: What are the key components of culture? Individually, or in pairs, write a simple definition of ‘culture’. Compare your definition with another group. Note the similarities and differences.

Defining ‘culture’ There are over 100 definitions of ‘culture’.
The following definitions of culture are tied together by an understanding that: culture is learned culture is shared cultural experiences vary within a cultural group culture changes continuously every exchange with others is intercultural. Culture permeates everything we think, say, do and are.

Defining ‘culture’ (cont.)
Chaney & Martin (2004, p. 268): Culture is ‘the structure through which the communication is formulated and interpreted; deals with the way people live’.

Ferraro (2002): Culture is ‘everything that people have, think, and do as members of their society’ (cited in Gudykunst & Kim 2003, p. 19).

Gudykunst & Kim (2001, p. 15): ‘Our culture provides us with a system of knowledge that generally allows us to know how to communicate with other members of our cultures and how to interpret their behaviour.’

Hofstede (2001): Culture is ‘the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one human group from another’ (cited in Dwyer 2005, p. 201).

Mohan, McGregor, Saunders & Archee (2004, p. 80): ‘… culture can best be understood if it is broken up into four main dimensions: history and world view, including values, beliefs and religion socialisation, including education, enculturation and personal growth language non-verbal communication’.

Windschuttle & Elliott (1999, p. 481): ‘A culture is a shared system of behaviour, values, beliefs, attitudes, manners, symbols and assumptions.’

Activity 2 Form groups of three or four students.
Working alone, write down five ‘rules’ or conventions your family follows when eating a meal together. In one household, the five rules might be as follows: Set the table. Turn off the television. Help bring the food to the table. Wait until everyone is seated before starting to eat. At the end of the meal, thank whoever cooked the meal.

Activity 2 (cont.) Now, compare your family’s ‘rules’ with those in your group. What is different? What is the same? How much of your family meal rules are based on your family’s own ideas and how much on wider cultural expectations (e.g. using a knife and fork vs using chopsticks)? Spend some time in your group discussing how the ‘rules’ change depending on particular circumstances (e.g. when a guest comes to dinner; when a family member has a birthday; on the weekend, etc.).

The unspoken ‘rules’ Life is made up of hundreds of unspoken expectations and ways of behaving. Even within the same ethnic and linguistic background, the ‘culture’ will be distinct from one family to another. Individual behaviour also depends on the context and the other individuals with whom the interaction is taking place.

Understanding culture
Understanding culture is about being conscious of what we do everyday without even thinking about it. The key to understanding culture is the recognition that ‘culture is transmitted and maintained solely through learning, enculturation and group interaction’ (Dwyer 2005, p. 33).

Iceberg analogy of culture
Tip (external culture): language, customs, typical food, dress acquired through observation, education/training easily learned and can be changed. Under water (internal culture): values, ways of thinking and perceiving, non-verbal communication overtly learned (formal education) or implicitly learned through socialisation influences/motivates our behaviour

Ethnocentrism ‘The belief in the superiority of one’s own culture’ (Guffey 2001, p. 12) Judging others by our own values Often results in stereotypes

Stereotypes Oversimplified behavioural patterns applied to entire groups e.g. ‘all Australians drink beer’ Fixed and distorted generalisations about all members of a group Ignore individual differences and specifics of the person or the situation

Stereotypes (cont.) Support underlying prejudices or biases
Support a superiority/inferiority belief system Used to justify unfair differential treatment Learnt through socialisation and often reinforced or perpetuated by the media (adapted from Cross-cultural awareness training module n.d.).

Activity 3 In groups of three or four, write a brief stereotype for each of the following nationalities: Australians New Zealanders Chinese British Japanese German French Present your feedback to class.

Activity 3 (cont.) Was it easy to agree on a simple stereotype for each nationality? Who taught us these stereotypes? Based on your own experience, are these stereotypes true? How are stereotypes used to discriminate against others? Can you think of any situations where stereotypes might be useful?

Conceptualising communication
Communication is a symbolic activity words, non-verbal displays and objects (e.g. the national flag). The meanings of symbols vary from culture to culture. Communication is a process involving the transmitting and interpreting of messages messages can be transmitted, but meanings cannot.

Creation of meaning The channel used to transmit the message influences how we interpret the meaning. For example: face-to-face telephone computer-mediated (e.g. , Internet) handwritten message. The context also influences the interpretation of the message (e.g. work, home, school) and issues of power affect the interpretation of a message.

Communication awareness
Communication takes place at varying levels of awareness. Much of what we know was learned unconsciously. Most of the time we are unaware of the process of communication. Awareness is heightened in new or strange situations.

Communication intention
Intention is not a necessary condition for communication. Other conditions include: habits (rituals such as greetings) emotions (responding to others without thinking, e.g. becoming defensive if we feel we have been insulted).

Non-verbal communication
Only 7 per cent of what is communicated between people is transmitted through words (Lahiff & Penrose 1997, p. 61). So often we focus on language (the words), when effective communication is much more about culture.

Activity 4 Working in pairs, complete the following exercises:
List five communication symbols (words, non-verbal displays or objects). Consider issues of power in an educational setting. How does this affect the communication between student and teacher?

Activity 4 (cont.) Think of a recent communication exchange with a person from another country. Can you recall any non-verbal issues that impeded your communication (e.g. kissing, touching, hand signals)? Consider the same question in relation to communicating with a person from your own country.

Intercultural or cross-cultural?
Intercultural communication: social interaction, sharing of meanings between people from diverse cultures, focus on ‘understanding and sharing’ rather than ‘comparing’ Cross-cultural communication: focus on comparison of communication styles

Intercultural communication
Concept of ‘stranger’: anyone unknown or unfamiliar Self-disclosure: a major factor in develop-ment of personal relationships with strangers Need for communication partners to validate and confirm the other Speaking the same language is no guarantee of shared understandings (consider gender, age, status) ALL interactions could be called ‘intercultural’

‘Third space’ Effective communicators ‘step outside’ their own culture when communicating, taking on a ‘third space’ perspective Describes the possibility for a negotiated re-imagining of cultural identity Identity is constructed and deconstructed Removal of ‘us vs. them’ distinctions Requires mutual commitment Need to find ‘common ground’

Strategies for effective intercultural communication
Resist stereotypes. Resist assumptions. Recognise own cultural position. Develop empathy. Communicate respect. Be aware of non-verbal communication. Aim for clarity. Recognise and rectify mistakes.

Activity 5 Do an Internet search on Geert Hofstede and the five cultural dimensions. How useful do you think Hofstede’s cultural dimensions are in developing effective intercultural communication skills?

Summary To develop intercultural communication competence, we need first to understand the concept of ‘culture’. Compare cross-cultural communication with intercultural communication. Be aware of ethnocentrism, stereotypes and other barriers to communication. Aim for ‘third space’ communication.

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