1. Chapter 10 Approaches to Instruction Viewing recommendations for Windows: Use the Arial TrueType font and set your screen area to at least 800 by 600 pixels with Colors set to Hi Color (16 bit). Viewing recommendations for Macintosh: Use the Arial TrueType font and set your monitor resolution to at least 800 by 600 pixels with Color Depth set to thousands of colors.

2. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company10–2 Overview Devising and using objectives The behavioral approach to teaching: Direct instruction The cognitive approach to teaching: Facilitating meaningful and self-directed learning The humanistic approach to teaching: Student-centered instruction The social approach to teaching: Teaching students how to learn from each other

3. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company10–3 Taxonomy of educational objectives: Cognitive domain Knowledge –Remembering previously learned information such as facts, terms, and principles Comprehension –Grasping the meaning of information by putting it into one’s own words Application –Applying knowledge to actual situations

4. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company10–4 Taxonomy of educational objectives: Cognitive domain Analysis –Breaking down ideas into simpler parts and seeing how the parts relate and are organized Synthesis –Rearranging component ideas into a new whole Evaluation –Making judgments based on internal evidence or external criteria

5. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company10–5 Taxonomy categories and problem solving

6. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company10–6 Taxonomy of educational objectives: Affective domain Receiving (attending) –Willingness to receive or attend Responding –Active participation indicating positive response or acceptance of an idea Valuing –Expressing a belief or attitude about the value or worth of something

7. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company10–7 Taxonomy of educational objectives: Affective domain Organization –Organizing various values into an internalized system Characterization by a value or value complex –The value system becomes a way of life

8. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company10–8 Taxonomy of educational objectives: Psychomotor domain Perception –Using sense organs to obtain cues needed to guide motor activity Set –Being ready to perform a particular action

9. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company10–9 Taxonomy of educational objectives: Psychomotor domain (cont’d) Guided response –Performing under the guidance of a model Mechanism –Being able to perform a task habitually with some degree of confidence and proficiency

10. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company10–10 Taxonomy of educational objectives: Psychomotor domain Complex or overt response –Performing a task with a high degree of proficiency and skill Adaptation –Using previously learned skills to perform new but related tasks Origination –Creating new performances after having developed skills

11. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company10–11 Mager’s Recommendations for Use of Specific Objectives Describe what you want learners to be doing when demonstrating achievement and indicate how you will know they are doing it In your description, identify and name the behavioral act that indicates achievement, define the conditions under which the behavior is to occur, and state the criterion of acceptable performance Write a separate objective for each learning performance

12. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company10–12 Gronlund’s Recommendations for Use of General Objectives Examine what is to be learned with reference to lists of objectives. Use such lists to formulate general objectives of instruction that describe types of behavior students should exhibit Under each general instructional objective, list up to five specific learning outcomes that begin with an action verb and indicate specific, observable responses

13. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company10–13 Evaluation of the effectiveness of objectives Objectives seem to work best when students are aware of them, treat them as directions to learn specific sections of material, and feel they will aid learning Objectives seem to work best when they are clearly written and the learning task is neither too difficult nor too easy

14. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company10–14 Evaluation of the effectiveness of objectives (cont’d) Students of average ability seem to profit more from being given objectives than do students of higher or lower ability Objectives lead to an improvement in intentional learning but to a decline in incidental learning

15. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company10–15 The nature and elements of a behavioral approach: Direct instruction Focusing almost all classroom activity on learning basic academic knowledge and skills Having the teacher make all instructional decisions

16. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company10–16 The nature and elements of a behavioral approach: Direct instruction (cont’d) Keeping students working productively toward learning new academic knowledge and skills as much as possible Maintaining a positive classroom climate by emphasizing positive reinforcement and avoiding the use of aversive consequences

17. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company10–17 Components of direct instruction Orientation –Introduction and overview of the lesson Presentation –Explaining and demonstrating new material Structured practice –Teacher leads class through problem

18. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company10–18 Components of direct instruction (cont’d) Guided practice –Students work on problems with teacher assistance Independent practice –Students practice on their own

19. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company10–19 Using technology to support behavioral approaches Specific performance objectives Breaking learning down into small steps Shaping student success Using immediate feedback and consistent rewards Predefining assessment techniques

20. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company10–20 The nature and elements of a cognitive approach: Information-processing Information moves through a series of mental storehouses that vary in the way in which information is stored and for how long Learning occurs gradually due to limits on how much information we can attend to and think about at any point in time What we know strongly influences what we learn We can exert a great deal of control over the cognitive processes that result in learning

21. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company10–21 Suggestions for facilitating meaningful and self-directed learning Communicate clear goals Use attention-getting devices Emphasize organization and meaningfulness Present information in learnable amounts and over realistic time periods Facilitate encoding of information into long- term memory Practice what you preach

22. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company10–22 The nature and elements of a cognitive approach: Constructivism Provide scaffolded instruction within the zone of proximal development (ZPD) Provide opportunities for learning by discovery Foster multiple viewpoints Emphasize relevant problems and tasks

23. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company10–23 Using technology to support cognitive approaches Helping students process information Intelligent tutoring systems Discovery and exploratory environments Guided learning Problem- and project-based learning Situated learning

24. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company10–24 The nature and elements of a humanistic approach: Student-centered instruction The humanistic approach pays particular attention to the role of noncognitive variables in learning; specifically, students’ needs, emotions, values, and self-perceptions Maslow: Let Children Grow Rogers: Learner-Centered Education Combs: The Teacher as Facilitator

25. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company10–25 The humanistic model Defining the helping situation Exploring the problem Developing insight Planning and decision making Integration

26. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company10–26 Using technology to support humanistic approaches Learner-centered process Helping students meaningfully construct and represent knowledge Create challenging and novel learning environments that help students link new information to old Achieve complex learning goals Build thinking and reasoning strategies

27. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company10–27 The nature and elements of a social approach Competitive structures –Structures in which one’s grade is determined by how well everyone else in the group performs Individualistic structures –Structures that are characterized by students working alone and earning rewards solely on the quality of their own efforts Cooperative structures –Structures that are characterized by students working together to accomplish shared goals

28. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company10–28 Elements of cooperative learning Group heterogeneity Group goals/positive interdependence Promotive interaction Individual accountability Interpersonal skills Equal opportunities for success Team competition

29. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company10–29 Why does cooperative learning work? Motivational effect Cognitive-developmental effect Cognitive elaboration effect

30. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company10–30 Using technology to support social approaches Social constructivist learning Cooperative and collaborative learning

31. End of Chapter 10 Approaches to Instruction