1. Research Tools and Techniques
The Research Process: Step 6 (Research Design – Elements 3,4, 6 and 8)
Lecture 12

2. Lecture Topics Covered Previously in the Last Lecture
Four Types of Research According to the Purpose of Study
Type of Investigation: Causal Versus Correlational

3. What we are going to Cover in this Lecture
Extent of Researcher Interference
Study Setting: Contrived Vs. Non Contrived
Unit of Analysis
Time Horizon of Study

4. THE RESEARCH PROCESS Observation (4). Theoretical Framework (7). (6).
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
(1).
Observation
 The Broad Problem Area
(2).
Preliminary Data Gathering
Interviews and Library Search
(3).
Problem Definition
 (4).
Theoretical
Framework
Variables
Identification
(5)
Generation of
Hypothesis
(6).
Scientific
Research
Design
(7).
Data Collection and Analysis
(8)
Deduction
(9).
Report Writing
(10).
Report Presentation
(11).
Managerial Decision Making

5. THE ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN
2. Type of
Investigation
Establishing:
Causal
Relationship or
Co-relational
1. Purpose of
Study
Exploratory
Descriptive
Hypothesis
Testing
Case Study
3. Extent of
Researcher
Interference
Minimal
Moderate
Excessive
4. Study Setting
Contrived
Non-Contrived
10. Test
Application
Feel for
Data
Goodness
of Data
Hypotheses
6.Unit of Analysis
(Population to be
studied)
Individuals
Dyads
Groups
Organizations
Machines
etc.
7. Sampling
Design
Probability
Non-probability
Sample Size (n)
8. Time Horizon
One-Shot
(Cross-Sectional)
Longitudinal
9. Data
Collection
Method
Observation
Interview
Questionnaire
Physical
Measurement
5. Measurement
& Measures
Operational Definition
Scaling
Categorizing
Coding
Problem Statement

6. EXTENT OF RESEARCHER INTERFERENCE
Correlational study  natural environment
(Minimum interference)
Causal study  researcher manipulates independent variable and controls exogenous variables i.e. effects of penicillin on mice etc.
Minimal interference:
A hospital administrator
Emotional support nurses receive  stress level
Days off
Moderate interference:
More emotional support causes  lesser stress level
Ward 1: lady doctors, male staff and ayyas
Ward 2: lady doctors
Ward 3: no caring staff
Excessive interference:
Three wards are created with same level of stress

7. STUDY SETTING: CONTRIVED/NON-CONTRIVED
NATURAL ENVIRONMENTNON CONTRIVED
FIELD STUDY
FIELD EXPERIMENT
LAB EXPERIMENT
Urea
Plant Growth

8. UNIT OF ANALYSIS
The unit of analysis refers to the level of aggregation of the data collected during the subsequent data analysis stage
Our research question determines the unit of analysis
S INDIVIDUAL S DYADS S GROUPS
S DIVISIONS S INDUSTRY
S COUNTRIES

9. Individual as Unit of Analysis
Level of Motivation
Productivity/hour
Ali 9 20
Asim 21
Farhan 8 19
Uzma 7 16
Majeed 18
Arshad 6 10
Aftab 4 5
Sohail 22
Effan 15

10. Dyads as Unit of Analysis
Husband’s Choice
Wife’s Choice
Mean
Toy Bought?
Pair 1 7 6
6.5 No
Pair 2 9
Yes
Pair 3 4 10
Pair 4
Pair 5 5
4.5

11. Groups as Unit of Analysis
Productivity
Group 1(Night Shift)
3.4
2.8
6.7
4.3
Mean=4.56
t-value = 2.87
Group 2 (Morning Shift)
3.3
4.7
6.3
6.6
Mean=5.42

12. Summary Extent of Researcher Interference
Study Setting: Contrived Vs. Non Contrived
Unit of Analysis
Time Horizon of Study