1. Eduardo Nebot del Busto (1) CERN, Geneva, Switzerland (2) The University of Liverpool, Department of physics, Liverpool, U. K (3) The Cockcroft Institute, Warrington, U.K Beam Loss Physics ACAS School for Accelerator Physics

2. Outlook Definitions and concepts  Beam Losses  Beam Loss Monitoring Beam Loss Categorization  Examples Interactions of particles with matter  Sources of secondary particles  Sources of Beam Loss Monitoring signal E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 1

3. A graphical introduction

4. Introduction What are beam losses? What are Beam Loss Monitors? Vacuum Chamber Beam E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 2

5. Vacuum Chamber Wall E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 3 Circulating beam What are beam losses? What are Beam Loss Monitors? Vacuum Introduction

6. Vacuum Chamber Wall E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 4 What are beam losses? What are Beam Loss Monitors? Introduction

7. Vacuum Chamber Wall E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 5 What are beam losses? What are Beam Loss Monitors? Introduction

8. Vacuum Chamber Wall E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 6 What are beam losses? What are Beam Loss Monitors? 1 Introduction

9. Vacuum Chamber Wall E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 7 Scattered (lost) beam particles What are beam losses? What are Beam Loss Monitors? Introduction

10. Vacuum Chamber Wall E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 8 Secondary particles What are beam losses? What are Beam Loss Monitors? 2 Introduction

11. Vacuum Chamber Wall E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 9 What are beam losses? What are Beam Loss Monitors? Particle detector 3 Introduction

12. Definitions and main goals

13. Definitions E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 10 Beam Losses  Particles deviating from the design orbit and hit the aperture limit Mechanisms for beam loss?  Impact of particles produce secondaries Mechanisms for secondary particle generation and detection? Beam Loss Monitors  Ionizing radiation detectors located around an accelerator Detector technologies? Read out electronics? Detector location? S. Mallows. Simulation of Beam Losses in the Compact Linear Collider Longitudinal coordinate (cm) Transverse coordinate (cm) The Large Hadron Collider Beam Loss Monitors

14. Quad ELBE TEVATRON SPS Test Machine Protection E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 11 Avoid beam induce damage: High power beams may have catastrophic consequences Reduce down time of the machine due to replacement/repairs

15. Quad Diagnostics E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 12 Quad Optimization of operation RHIC Beam scrapper movement

16. Control activation E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 13 Quad MY ARM The Australian SynchrotronThe HiRadMat Facility Keep activation levels low: Reduce production of radiation waste Protect personnel against radiation hazard

17. Beam Loss categorization: Examples

18. Type of Beam Losses I E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 14 Irregular beam losses:  They are avoidable but sometimes tolerated  Uncontrolled: Occur due to malfunctioning of one (or several) accelerator components RF trips (in electron machines) Obstacles in the beam Dust Vacuum leaks

19. Unidentified Flying Objects E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 15 1 ms Fast and localized loses around the LHC ring of duration ~1 ms Believed to be caused by the interaction of protons with 1-100 μm metallic dust Events only observed with the BLM system (magnet quench potential)

20. Vacuum E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 16 HERA

21. Obstacles into the beam E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 17 The Large Electron-Positron Collider LEP 27 km housed in the current LHC tunnel between 1989 and 2000 On June 1996, during a commissioning phase, a strange object was found in the vacuum chamber

22. Obstacles into the beam E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 18 The Large Electron-Positron Collider LEP 27 km housed in the current LHC tunnel between 1989 and 2000 On June 1996, during a commissioning phase, a strange object was found in the vacuum chamber

23. Type of Beam Losses II E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 19 Regular beam losses:  They are unavoidable but controlled  Typically localized at collimation systems or aperture limits  Lowest possible loss rate defined by beam lifetime limitations Touscheck effect Residual gas scattering Collisions Beam-beam interactions

24. Beam through dipoles E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 20 beam momentum p +/- Δp Dipoles bend the trajectory of the beam particles  Only particles with the “design” momentum will propagate with  Certain margin is given by me momentum acceptance Δp Vacuum Chamber Dipole (top view) B field

25. Touscheck Effect E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 21 beam momentum p +/- Δp Large angle intra beam coulomb scattering  Momentum transfer from transverse to longitudinal direction phase space B field p low < p - Δp p high > p + Δp

26. Scattering with residual gas E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 22 beam momentum p +/- Δp Coulomb scattering  Elastic: No momentum change but direction  Inelastic: Momentum loss B field p low < p - Δp

27. Touscheck and coulomb scattering E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 23 Adequate location of BLMs may be very useful to identify loss mechanisms

28. Interactions of particles with matter Examples

29. Interaction of particles with matter E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 24 Beam Loss Monitoring requires a good overview of particle physics  What do we expect at the detector locations?  What are the physical process that produce a measurable signals Interactions  Charged particles Ionization Bremsstrahlung Cherenkov  Photons Photoelectric effect Comptom effect pair production Mechanism for generation of secondary particles  Electromagnetic and hadronic showers

30. Charged particles - Ionization E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 25 The energy loss per unit length is given by the Bethe-Bloch formula

31. Charged particles - Ionization E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 26 ∝ β -2 logarithmic increase Minimum Ionizing Particle MIP

32. Charged particles - Bremsstrahlung E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 27 Emission of radiation when charged particles are decelerated in a coulomb field Depends on properties of the target material and incident particle Dominant process at high energies E > E C dσ/dE ∝ (Z/M) 2 ln E/E E C = 800 MeV/(Z +1.2 )

33. Charged particles - Cherenkov effect E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 28 Quad In Quartz ~1000 photons/cm (200 - 900 nm) Light generated by particles traveling at v > v light

34. Photons I E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 29 Photons interact with matter via three processes

35. Photons II E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 30 Photoelectric effect (E Ɣ ≲ 100keV)

36. Photons III E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 31 Comptom effect (100 keV ≲ E Ɣ ≲ 10 MeV)

37. Photons IV E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 32 Pair production ( E Ɣ ≳ 10 MeV)

38. Scintillation E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 33 Incoming radiation excites molecular levels that proceed to decay by emitting photons The photonic Yield is proportional to the ionization stopping power Y = dL/dx = R S dE/dx Rs: ratio of number of emitted photons to energy deposited by ionization

39. Secondary emission E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 34 Emission of electrons from a metallic surface when crossed by high energy particles

40. Electromagnetic showers E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 35 Mechanism for secondary generation at high energy:  Electrons: Bremsstrahlung  Photons: Pair creation Shower keeps developing until:  E e < E C  E ɣ < 2 m e Radiation length

41. Hadronic showers E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 36 Affects particles that undergo strong interactions (hadrons) Similar concept to the electromagnetic case:  After a certain mean free path, the primary interacts generating N new particles Main differences the electromagnetic case:  After a certain mean free path, the primary interacts generating N new particles  N > 2  Larger mean free path  Energy stops developing at E ≃ 140 MeV  Contains an EM component ( π 0 → ϒϒ )

42. Hadronic showers E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 37 Affects particles that undergo strong interactions (hadrons) Similar concept to the electromagnetic case:  After a certain mean free path, the primary interacts generating N new particles Main differences the electromagnetic case:  After a certain mean free path, the primary interacts generating N new particles  N > 2  Larger mean free path  Energy stops developing at E ≃ 140 MeV  Contains an EM component ( π 0 → ϒϒ )

43. Radiation units

44. Photons IV E. Nebot del Busto ASAP 2016 - BLM Physics 38