1. Repressed Memories Elizabeth Loftus

2. “Derepressed memories” Loftus opens with several examples of court cases that involve “derepressed memories” What is a repressed memory? What is a derepressed memory?

3. What’s the issue? What does Loftus express concern about regarding the derepression of memories? –reality of the memory is in question if it is recalled under certain circumstances What is the course of events that Loftus finds worrisome? Therapist or Popular Book suggests that patient consider possibility of abuse Patient engages in intense effort to recall An explicit episodic memory is achieved This memory might be false!

4. What’s the issue? So we potentially have a situation in which someone who is having troubles in life and is seeking answers is told to determine whether or not memories for abuse exist What are some techniques that are used to “assist” recollection?

5. What’s the issue? So we potentially have a situation in which someone who is having troubles in life and is seeking answers is told to determine whether or not memories for abuse exist What are some techniques that are used to “assist” recollection? –hypnosis, imagery, dream analysis, story telling –Loftus presents evidence that such processes may lead to invalid memories or overconfidence in the validity of memories

6. Conclusion: We cannot know with certainty (without corroborating evidence) whether a derepressed memory is true Therapists should engage in probing this possibility very carefully –avoiding suggestive questions –remaining unconvinced without corroborating evidence –being “gently confrontational” to encourage patient to consider the possibility that the events didn’t happen

7. Vokey & Read S T U D Y l a n i m i l b u S s e g a s s e M

8. Upcoming Memes (Richard Dawkins) next class Idea journals due next class Final Exam 19 th, 20 th, 21 st

9. Subliminal Messages What were the two themes of the article by Vokey and Read?

10. Subliminal Messages What were the two themes of the article by Vokey and Read? 1. Do so-called subliminal messages work? 2. Is it possible that not all “messages” were put there by evil rock stars (or Satan)?

11. Subliminal Messages What two kinds of subliminal messages do the authors investigate?

12. Subliminal Messages What two kinds of subliminal messages do the authors investigate? –“backmasking” - backwards messages in songs

13. Subliminal Messages What two kinds of subliminal messages do the authors investigate? –“backmasking” - backwards messages in songs –words embedded in the background of images

14. Backmasking “Backmasking” is not backward masking –(snide remark: if you’re going to argue that some perceptual phenomenon is the work of Satan, at least get the name right)

15. Backmasking “Backmasking” is not backward masking –(snide remark: if you’re going to argue that some perceptual phenomenon is the work of Satan, at least get the name right) controversy in the 80’s - subliminal “backmasked” messages in rock music

16. Backmasking Examples of Gary Greenwald’s demonstrations (warning: you are about to hear a backmasked “message”) Forward Backward

17. Does Backmasking Work? What can subjects tell about backwards messages?

18. Does Backmasking Work? What can subjects tell about backwards messages? –Sex of the speaker –Language (barely) –Different speaker (barely)

19. Does Backmasking Work? What don’t backwards messages convey?

20. Does Backmasking Work? What don’t backwards messages convey? –Meaning

21. Does Backmasking Work? Some Examples of the experiments that Vokey & Read did: Subjects were presented with various phrases played backward. Subjects were unable to: –Accurately discriminate between questions and declarations –Sort sentences into the category of message (i.e. satanic, christian, nursery rhymes, etc.)

22. Does Backmasking Work? The meaning of backmasked messages is not consciously perceived (sufficiently to enable performance on these tasks). Might such messages still influence behavior?

23. Does Backmasking Work? Priming by backmasked message?

24. Does Backmasking Work? Priming by backmasked message? BACKGROUND: Subjects presented with passages that use the less common of two homophones tend to use that word when asked to spell it –e.g. climbing Mt. Everest is an incredible feat

25. Does Backmasking Work? Priming by backmasked message? BACKGROUND: Subjects presented with passages that use the less common of two homophones tend to use that word when asked to spell it –e.g. climbing Mt. Everest is an incredible feat Subjects heard backwards sentences containing uncommon words If backwards messages have subliminal influence, what would you predict?

26. Does Backmasking Work? Priming by backmasked message? Result: there was no biasing of the less frequent homophone by exposure to it in a backward message

27. Does Backmasking Work? Priming by backmasked message? Result: there was no biasing of the less frequent homophone by exposure to it in a backward message Interpretation: backmasked messages are not effective at influencing behavior

28. Does Backmasking Work? Priming by backmasked message? What are some counterarguments one might make?

29. Does Backmasking Work? Priming by backmasked message? What are some counterarguments one might make? –Perhaps repeated exposure is necessary

30. Does Backmasking Work? Priming by backmasked message? What are some counterarguments one might make? –Perhaps repeated exposure is necessary –Null findings do not prove the absence of an effect

31. Does Backmasking Work? Priming by backmasked message? What are some counterarguments one might make? –Perhaps repeated exposure is necessary –Null findings do not prove the absence of an effect one needs to know the statistical power

32. Are All Subliminal Messages Intentionally Inserted? These messages tend not to be clear and obvious

33. Are All Subliminal Messages Intentionally Inserted? These messages tend not to be clear and obvious Could it be that our brains mistakenly see or hear messages that aren’t really there?

34. Are All Subliminal Messages Intentionally Inserted? These messages tend not to be clear and obvious Could it be that our brains mistakenly see or hear messages that aren’t really there? Do brains make stuff up!?

35. Are All Subliminal Messages Intentionally Inserted? These messages tend not to be clear and obvious Could it be that our brains mistakenly see or hear messages that aren’t really there? Do brains make stuff up!? Absolutely! All the time.

36. Are All Subliminal Messages Intentionally Inserted? Is there really a dog or are the spots enough like a dog for your brain to fill in the rest?

37. Are All Subliminal Messages Intentionally Inserted? Some other examples brains making guesses with your perception Missing fundamental, color constancy, Kaniza triangle,the blindspot, illusory conjunctions, misinformation effect, false memories

38. Subliminal “Messages” Where you Least Expect Them How did Vokey and Read test the idea that subliminal messages might just be a case of mistaken perception?

39. Subliminal “Messages” Where you Least Expect Them They examined passages from various sources (Jabberwokey and the 23rd Psalm) played backwards to identify candidate messages The “subliminal” message is:

40. Subliminal “Messages” Where you Least Expect Them They examined passages from various sources (Jabberwokey and the 23rd Psalm) played backwards to identify candidate messages The “subliminal” message is: “saw a girl with a weasel in her mouth”

41. Subliminal “Messages” Where you Least Expect Them Listeners were given each passage (backwards) and asked to listen for 12 possible messages Listeners detected “messages” in the appropriate passage

42. Subliminal “Messages” Where you Least Expect Them Interpretation: Your brain is remarkably good at “active construction” of patterns amid a background of noise.

43. Subliminal “Messages” Where you Least Expect Them Interpretation: Your brain is remarkably good at “active construction” of patterns amid a background of noise. Creative listening by (well-meaning?) public censors can go very wrong

44. Subliminal “Messages” Where you Least Expect Them Consider the trial of Judas Priest –Band sued for inserting the message “do it” which allegedly lead to the suicide of two teens Listen for “Do It”The “do its”

45. Subliminal “Messages” Where you Least Expect Them Consider the trial of Judas Priest –Band sued for inserting the message “do it” which allegedly lead to the suicide of two teens Band acquitted on the basis of expert testimony

46. Expert Testimony !

47. Subliminal “Messages” Where you Least Expect Them With enough creativity and patience one can see “subliminal messages” just about anywhere:

48. Subliminal “Messages” Where you Least Expect Them Our perceptual mechanisms are great at extracting meaningful images from noisy stimuli. For example - the famous face on Mars: Viking, 1976

49. Subliminal “Messages” Where you Least Expect Them Given a clearer picture it looks a lot less like a face: Mars Global Surveyor, 2001

50. Next time: Memes