1. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall1-1 Psychology Definition – the science of behavior and mental processes

2. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall1-2 Research Methods in Psychology The goals of psychology are to describe, predict and control behavior. These goals are accomplished by using the scientific method, which is systematic and empirical (based on observable events).

3. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall1-3 Goals of Psychology 1. Describe – the information gathered through scientific research helps us to describe psychological phenomena more accurately Example – Kinsey report

4. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall1-4 Goals of Psychology 2. Predict – detect and describe patterns in nature Example – Differential effects of stress on performance (Yerkes-Dodson Law)

5. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall1-5 Goals of Psychology 3. Understand – adding an explanation to our descriptive and predictive knowledge Note: this is not to say that we understand psychological phenomena when we have an explanation – our current explanations are tentative – are theories Definition – tentative explanations of facts and relationships in science

6. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall1-6 Theories in Science Science is not a set of finished truths – it is a method of gaining information, and the process may never be complete. Theories are always subject to revision as more and more information becomes available –Ex: Newtonian physics

7. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall1-7 Philosophy of Science The business of science can be thought of as the revision of theories using scientific method. Scientists make predictions (hypostheses) based on a theory; they then test their hypothesis. If predictions are accurate – the theory is supported If predictions are not – are disconfirmed

8. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall1-8 Philosophy of Science (cont.) Even a supported theory may be only one possible explanation If a theory is consistently supported, it may achieve the status of a law (def – a strongly supported and widely accepted theory) Even a law is not the truth

9. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall1-9 Goals of Psychology (cont.) Influence – to affect behavior This goal does not/cannot apply to all sciences

10. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall1-10 Research Methods in Psychology By asking questions of a representative sample, researchers using the survey method can provide useful information about a much larger population. The wording of the questions can influence participants' responses.

11. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall1-11 Research Methods in Psychology A case study is an in-depth analysis of a single person or event. Although the findings of a case study may apply only to the person who was studied, they may provide direction for further study using other methods.

12. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall1-12 Research Methods in Psychology To study behavior in real-life settings, psychologists often use naturalistic observation. This technique also may suggest research projects using more controlled approaches. In using naturalistic observation, the onlooker must be unobtrusive and avoid influencing the behavior being studied.

13. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall1-13 Research Methods in Psychology Correlational research tells whether the values of two variables are related.

14. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall1-14 Research Methods in Psychology Although correlational methods do not inform us about causality, they can provide useful insights and help us to make predictions.

15. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall1-15 Research Methods in Psychology Because it can generate cause-and-effect statements, many psychologists believe that the experimental method is the most powerful research approach. By manipulating an independent variable (the cause), the researcher determines whether it influences the dependent variable (the effect).

16. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall1-16 Research Methods in Psychology By manipulating an independent variable (the cause), the researcher determines whether it influences the dependent variable (the effect).

17. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall1-17 Research Methods in Psychology Despite the strengths of the experimental method, the results and interpretation of a scientific experiment can be influenced by; –the specific way the research is conducted, –the culture in which the research is conducted, –and the experimenter's personal biases.

18. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall1-18 Research Methods in Psychology Statistics involves the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data. Descriptive statistics summarize data. Inferential statistics are used to determine whether or not the results of an experiment are significant.

19. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall1-19 Research Methods in Psychology Measures of central tendency provide information about the typical score in a set of numbers. Measures of variance provide information about the variability or spread in a set of data.

20. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall1-20 Research Methods in Psychology The American Psychological Association has established ethical guidelines for making decisions about research with both human and animal participants.

21. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall1-21 Psychology as a Science The questions of interest to psychologists have been around for a very long time They have, historically, been addressed by philosophers, but there have been small steps along the way toward scientific explanations e.g., Galileo (1562 – 1642) – described the universe as a giant machine (and ultimately understandable) Descartes (1561 – 1626) – extended this mechanistic view to humans British Empiricists (ex – John Locke (1632 – 1704) – believed that all knowledge is acquired through the senses – led to the scientific study of sensory mechanisms Psychophysics – Helmholtz (1821 – 1894) – first to record the speed of a neural impulse

22. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall1-22 The Origins of Modern Psychology Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig in Germany in 1879. The goal of Wundt’s school of psychology, known as structuralism was to identify the elements of conscious experience by using the method of introspection.

23. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall1-23 The Origins of Modern Psychology Another perspective, which came to be known as functionalism focused on the purposes of consciousness and was especially concerned with the applications of psychology. Gestalt psychology is concerned primarily with our perception of our environment. Cognitive psychology studies higher mental processes such as thinking, knowing, and deciding.

24. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall1-24 The Origins of Modern Psychology Gestalt psychology is concerned primarily with our perception of our environment.

25. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall1-25 The Origins of Modern Psychology Cognitive psychology studies higher mental processes such as thinking, knowing, and deciding.

26. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall1-26 The Origins of Modern Psychology Influenced by the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson was interested in how the environment affects behavior. Because consciousness cannot be observed directly, Watson defined psychology as the study of observable behavior. The behavioral perspective was continued by B. F. Skinner, probably the best known and most influential psychologist of our time.

27. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall1-27 The Origins of Modern Psychology Sigmund Freud's psychodynamic perspective focused on unconscious determinants of behavior. Freud also developed a treatment approach known as psychoanalysis.

28. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall1-28 The Origins of Modern Psychology Dissatisfaction with both the behavioral and the psychodynamic perspectives led psychologists Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers to develop the humanistic perspective Humanists believe that other perspectives pay too little attention to uniquely human characteristics such as free will and individual control.

29. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall1-29 The Origins of Modern Psychology The psychological perspective focuses on the underlying biological bases of all forms of behavior.

30. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall1-30 The Origins of Modern Psychology The evolutionary perspective focuses on why a particular behavior or physical structure developed and how that behavior or structure aids in adaptation to the environment.

31. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall1-31 The Origins of Modern Psychology The field of psychology has begun to recognize the contributions made by women and ethnic minorities, and additional contributions from these groups can be expected in the future. The cultural and diversity perspective focuses on such research contributions.

32. Copyright 2004 Prentice Hall1-32 Psychological Specialties Most psychologists have earned a doctoral degree (Ph.D. or Psy-D.). Although many psychologists teach and engage in research, a growing number provide direct services to clients.

33. 4 th Edition Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall10-33 Sex and Gender Chapter 10

34. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall10-34 Sex and Gender: An Introduction Sex refers to genetic, anatomical, and hormonal differences between males and females. Gender refers to the prescriptions for behaviors, characteristics, roles, and physical appearance that a culture encourages for members of each biological sex.

35. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall10-35 Sex and Gender: An Introduction Genetic inheritance is the most basic determinant of whether an individual is male or female. The 23rd pair of chromosomes determines a person's sex. A male has an X and a Y chromosome, whereas a female has two X chromosomes.

36. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall10-36 Sex and Gender: An Introduction Early in development, the embryo's gonad (sex gland) can develop into either a testis or an ovary. The presence of a Y chromosome directs this undifferentiated gonad to develop into a testis.

37. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall10-37 Sex and Gender: An Introduction Genetic abnormalities include Klinefelter's syndrome (XXY), in which a male has smaller- than-normal genitals, and may be mentally retarded. Females with Turner syndrome (X0) do not achieve sexual maturation. Males with the XYY chromosomal pattern are usually tall, have below-average intelligence, and may be more likely to commit crimes.

38. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall10-38 Sex and Gender: An Introduction The size of the Y chromosome is a significant factor in the inheritance of sex- linked disorders such as color-blindness. The smaller Y chromosome does not carry as many genes as the larger X chromosome.

39. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall10-39 Sex and Gender: An Introduction Males are more vulnerable than females to developmental disorders and certain fatal diseases.

40. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall10-40 Sex and Gender: An Introduction Exposure to excessively high levels of androgens during the fetal period can result in adrenogenital syndrome Androgen insensitivity syndrome occurs when a male embryo does not respond to male hormones.

41. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall10-41 Sex and Gender: An Introduction Hormonal factors are important determinants of sexual behavior in animals. They also play an important role in human behavior and in the development of the sex organs.

42. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall10-42 Sex and Gender: An Introduction Males and females differ in a number of ways in their attitudes and behavior concerning sexual behavior. Among the common sexual dysfunctions are hypoactive sexual desire, male erectile disorder, and sexual pain disorders.

43. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall10-43 Sexual Response Cycle Excitement phase –Heightened sexual awareness to thoughts, sights, touches, sounds, and odors Plateau phase –HR, BP, respiration, and muscle tension increase Orgasmic phase –Ejaculation occurs for men –Women experience rhythmic contractions of the pelvic muscles and vaginal walls Resolution phase –The body returns to pre-arousal state

44. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall10-44 Sex and Gender: An Introduction Among the common sexual dysfunctions are hypoactive sexual desire, male erectile disorder, and sexual pain disorders.

45. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall10-45 Sex and Gender: An Introduction Among the explanations for the development of gender distinctions are psychodynamic theory observational learning, cognitive developmental theory, and gender-schema theory.

46. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall10-46 Sex and Gender: An Introduction Stereotyping is the tendency to view people in terms of a set of beliefs about the groups or categories of which they are members. Gender stereotypes based on the assumption that masculinity and femininity are opposite and cannot occur in the same person have been replaced by broader conceptions of gender such as the notion of androgyny.

47. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall10-47 Sex and Gender: An Introduction Children in all parts of the world learn gender stereotypes rapidly and at an early age. The mass media influence the learning of gender stereotypes.

48. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall10-48 Similarities and Differences Between Males and Females Apart from obvious differences in reproductive anatomy and genetics, there are not many biological differences between men and women.

49. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall10-49 Similarities and Differences Between Males and Females A wide range of behaviors has been investigated from the standpoint of male- female differences. Males and females do not differ in overall intelligence, in part because intelligence tests were designed to equalize any differences.

50. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall10-50 Similarities and Differences Between Males and Females In the past, females were reported to outperform males in verbal ability. The difference has narrowed to the point where it is essentially zero.

51. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall10-51 Similarities and Differences Between Males and Females Males seem to perform better than females on tasks involving mathematical and spatial ability, although the difference is narrowing rapidly. The difference in mathematical ability seems limited to non-classroom tests; in class, girls obtain higher grades in mathematics than boys. Gender stereotypes and differential opportunities may have an impact on differences in mathematical and spatial ability.

52. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall10-52 Similarities and Differences Between Males and Females There seem to be some differences in the ways in which males and females communicate. Differences in helping behavior seem to be related to gender stereotypes. Differences in aggression may be somewhat narrow if one recognizes that there are different types of aggression.

53. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall10-53 Eagly & Wood (1991) Nine sex differences in adults observed across many studies: 1. Women are better at sending and receiving messages nonverbally. 2. Women conform to group pressure more than men. 3. Women act more friendly and agree more with other group members in small groups.

54. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall10-54 Eagly & Wood (1991) 4. Men are more strictly task-oriented in work groups. 5. All female groups typically perform better than all male groups. 6. Men are more likely to emerge as leaders in initially leaderless groups.

55. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall10-55 Eagly & Wood (1991) 7. Men are more helpful in short-term interactions with strangers. 8. Men behave more aggressively to others than women, particularly when the aggression brings about physical harm or pain. 9. Women report more life satisfaction and happiness than men.

56. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall10-56 Social Issues Continued reliance on gender stereotypes can result in sexism-differential treatment of individuals based on their sex.

57. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall10-57 Social Issues Sexism has been noted in adults' interactions with toddlers in preschool settings. Observations of elementary school classrooms have found evidence that sexism pervades those settings as well. In schools boys tend to be reinforced for assertiveness; girls are reinforced for politeness. These differences can also be seen in high school and college classrooms.

58. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall10-58 Social Issues Women now earn more undergraduate college/university degrees than men. This trend is projected to accelerate in coming decades.

59. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall10-59 Social Issues Sexual harassment has been defined as; –(1) coercion of sexual favors by means of promised rewards or threatened punishments (quid pro quo), –(2) creation of a hostile environment.

60. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall10-60 Social Issues More than half of working women have experienced some form of sexual harassment. Men and women differ in their interpretation of events as instances of sexual harassment.

61. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall10-61 Social Issues Women in leadership positions receive lower evaluations than men, although the difference is not large. There is evidence, however, that when evaluation criteria are ambiguous and the evaluators are men, there is a greater likelihood that women's leadership abilities will be devalued.

62. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall10-62 Social Issues Despite the increase in the number of women who have entered the labor force in recent decades, men and women do not share household and child- care responsibilities more equally than they did in the past

63. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall10-63 Social Issues Some psychologists have focused on the positive benefits that women derive from juggling work outside the home with household and other responsibilities. These benefits include increased ability to cope with stress.