2. The Reforms of Alexander II AS-Level Revision

3. Why were reforms needed? Alexander became Tsar during the Crimean War. The impact of defeat in this war is crucial to understanding the motivation for reform and the contradictory attitudes towards it.

4. Reactions to Defeat in Crimea – 1. Russia needed reform Russia ’ s backward economy and outmoded social system were to blame. The key institution of serfdom obstructed economic progress. Serfdom also hindered growth of an urban working-class and middle-class

5. Russia needed Reform Those who took this view are often regarded as ‘ westerners ’. They considered that the Western countries provided the model for Russia ’ s future development.

6. Reactions to Defeat in Crimea – 2. Russia needed to prevent revolution Defeat in war posed the threat of revolution. Russia already suffered from frequent peasant uprisings. Great social upheaval could wipe away the autocracy. Thus, repressive action was needed to head off this threat.

7. Russia needed to prevent revolution Those who took this view are often regarded as ‘ slavophiles ’. They wanted to restore the basic principles of the Tsarist autocracy.

8. What was Alexander ’ s attitude? Known to us as ‘ Tsar Liberator ’. Had studied problem of serfdom. Aware of the need for reform. HOWEVER, he was also known as a reactionary, keen to preserve absolute monarchy, and mindful of the need to keep the nobles on side.

9. What was serfdom? Specific to European Russia. They were peasants who were owned by their noble masters. They had no rights of their own, their property was their lord ’ s, and they had no legal redress. Their farming methods were primitive and unproductive, based on a ‘ rotating strip ’ system that discouraged modernisation and was preserved by conservative minded mirs.

10. The Emancipation Problem Alexander believed he needed to ‘ free ’ the peasants, but not offend the nobles. The committees involved with drawing up reform were wholly on the side of the landowners. The position of the serfs after emancipation was virtually ignored.

11. Emancipation Edict 1861 Peasants were given their immediate personal freedom, and approximately half the cultivated land. Landlords were given compensation by the state. Peasants now had to make redemption payments to the state over 49 years.

12. Emancipation Edict 1861 When paid for, the peasant land would become the property of the mir. Peasants were not allocated sufficient good land to survive upon. Peasants had to resort to renting land from the gentry at a cost additional to redemption payments.

13. Emancipation Edict 1861 In trying to satisfy the principles of freedom and land tenure to the peasants, compensation to the landowners, and the prevention of a landless proletariat, the Edict had ultimately left all sides embittered.

14. Other Reforms Emancipation was the catalyst for a range of other reforms, some caused directly by the breaking of the link between serf and landlord, others caused by the continuing belief in the need for modernisation of Russia. Many reforms were driven by key individuals such as the Miliutin brothers.

15. Economy Encouragement of local industries in textiles, iron and steel, coal and oil. Foreign entrepreneurs brought in. Mixture of state help and private enterprise. Railway expansion Some change accelerated by Witte ’ s policies later.

16. Justice System Legal right to a defence Jury system of trial Increased supply and quantity of independent judges Free speech in court These were arguably the most far- reaching and significant of Alexander II ’ s reforms.

17. Military Reforms Conscription was changed and service for life altered Right to become an officer extended to all classes Better military education introduced, including creation of a staff college. However, there was a lack of sufficient resources to support the reforms.

18. Education Universities expanded and allowed greater freedom Secondary education developed, leading to rise in literacy.

19. Local Government Zemstva established – locally elected assemblies – to deal with matters previously undertaken by the lords (local taxation and administration; NOT policing) The zemstva extended a small level of local democracy