1. SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN THE PRESCHOOL YEARS CHAPTER 8

2. Learning Objectives

3. FORMING A SENSE OF SELF

4. Psychosocial Development: Resolving the Conflicts Psychosocial development encompasses changes in individuals’ understanding of both themselves and others’ behavior Preschool years largely encompass what Erikson called the initiative-versus-guilt stage, which lasts from around age three to age six –INITIATIVE = desire to act independently from parents and becoming autonomous –GUILT = guilt of unintended consequences resulting in shame and self-doubt

5. Self- Concept in the Preschool Years: Thinking about the Self Self-concept or identity: Set of beliefs about what we are like as individuals Preschooler self-concept –Not “accurate” –More optimistic –Overestimates of abilities Tasks –Becoming their own person –Making own decisions –Shaping kind of person they are becoming

6. Cultural Influence View of self culturally bound –Collectivist Orientation: Asian –Individualistic Orientation: Western View of self family tied View of self individually directed

7. Developing Racial and Ethnic Awareness Developmental Diversity Racial and ethnic identity begins to formalize Differences in skin color noticed early in life Cultural meaning attached to differences comes later

8. Developmental Diversity By age 3-4 years many preschoolers: Differentiate races Mirror social attitudes

9. Race Dissonance Minority children indicate preferences for majority values or people Result of powerful influence of dominant white culture NOT disparagement of own racial characteristics

10. Ethnic Identity Emerges somewhat later than racial identity –Usually less conspicuous than race Preschoolers who were bilingual, speaking both Spanish and English, are more apt to be aware of ethnic identity

11. Gender Identity Sense of being male or female Well established by preschool years Same-sex preferences appear in many cultures By age 2 years: –Consistently label themselves and others as male and female

12. Gender Constancy Kohlberg (1966) –By age 4-5, children develop understanding of gender constancy Belief that people are permanently males or females because of fixed, unchangeable biological factors Gender schemas occur well before gender constancy is understood

13. Gender and Play Differences noted in play of male and female preschoolers Males: –More rough and tumble play –Same sex playmate preference around 3 Females: –Organized games and role playing –Same sex playmate preference around 2

14. Gender Expectations Expectations about gender-appropriate behavior more rigid and gender-stereotyped than adults up to 5 years Gender outweighs ethnic variables

15. Snips, and snails…. Preschoolers expect boys to demonstrate: CompetenceIndependenceForcefulnessCompetitiveness

16. Sugar and spice... Preschoolers expect girls to demonstrate: WarmthExpressivenessNurturanceSubmissiveness

17. Theoretical Perspectives on Gender Biological –Inborn, genetic factors produce gender differences Psychoanalytic –Gender differences result of moving through series of stages related to biological urges Social learning –Gender related behavior learned from observations of others’ behaviors Cognitive –Gender schemes form lens through which world is viewed

18. Psychoanalytic Perspective on Gender Males and females go through different identification process Identifying with same sex parents enables child to adopt parents’ gender attitudes and values

19. Social Learning Perspective on Gender Gender related behaviors and expectations learned from observing others Books, media, television perpetuate gender related behavior and expectations

20. Cognitive Perspective on Gender Gender schema or cognitive framework organizes relevant gender information Preschoolers begin developing “rules” about what is right and inappropriate for males and females

21. Bem There…Done That Sandra Bem and androgynous children –Encouraged to follow gender roles that encompass characteristics thought typical of both sexes –Male-appropriate and female-appropriate traits

22. Four Approaches to Gender Development

23. Review and Apply REVIEW According to Erikson's ____ development theory, preschool-age children move from the ____ -versus- shame-and-doubt stage to the ____ -versus-guilt stage. During the preschool years, children develop their ____ ____, beliefs about themselves that they derive from their own ____, their parents’ ____, and ____. Racial and ethnic awareness begins to form in the ____ years. Gender awareness also develops in the preschool years. Explanations of this phenomenon include ____, ____, ____, and ____ approaches.

24. Review and Apply APPLY What sorts of activities might you encourage a preschool boy to undertake to encourage him to adopt a less stereotypical gender schema?

25. FRIENDS AND FAMILY: PRESCHOOLERS’ SOCIAL LIVES

26. Preschoolers’ Social Lives Increased interactions with the world at large Peers with special qualities Relationships based on companionship, play, entertainment Friendship focused on completion of shared activities

27. A Friend Indeed… You Can't Come to my Birthday Party! View of friendship evolves with age and older preschoolers See friendship as continuing state and stable relationship Begin to understand concepts such as trust, support, shared interest

28. Playing by the Rules: The Work of Play Children are interested in maintaining smooth social relationships with friends Children try to avoid and/or solve disagreements

29. Learning to Play… Playing to Learn Play is critical to the overall development of young children Changes over time Becomes more sophisticated, interactive, cooperative Gradually more dependent on social and cognitive skills

30. Categorizing Play Functional play: simple, repetitive activities typical of 3- year-olds that may involve objects or repetitive muscular movements Constructive play: activities in which children manipulate objects to produce or build something

31. Building…inside and out! By age four, children engage in constructive play that: Tests developing cognitive skills Practices motor skills Facilitates problem solving Teaches cooperation

32. Social Aspects of Play Parten (1932) Parallel Play Children play with similar toys, in a similar manner, but do not interact with each other Onlooker Play Children simply watch each other play Solitary Play Children play by themselves Associative Play Children interact with one another in groups of two or more Children share or borrow toys or materials, but do not do the same thing Cooperative Play Children play with one another, take turns, play games, and devise contests

33. Preschoolers’ Play

34. The Smallest Great Pretenders Nature of pretend, or make-believe, play changes during the preschool period: Becomes increasingly unrealistic and more imaginative Change from using only realistic objects to using less concrete ones

35. Comparing Play Complexity

36. What are you thinking, anyway? Preschoolers’ Theory of Mind Using their theory of mind, preschool children are able to come up with explanations for how others think and reasons for why they behave the way they do –Imagine things not physically present –Pretend and react to imagined events –Know that others have this capability –Begin to understand motives –Most have incomplete understanding of “beliefs” –Some can solve false belief problems

37. Emergence of Theory of Mind Emergence related to: Brain maturation Hormonal changes Developing language Opportunities for social interaction and pretend play Cultural background

38. Preschoolers’ Family Lives Many preschoolers face increasingly complex world but for most children not a time of upheaval and turmoil Increased number of single parent headed families Still most children do not experience upheaval and turmoil Strong, positive relationships within families encourage relationships with other children

39. Effective Parenting: Teaching Desired Behavior AUTHORITARIAN Exhibit controlling, rigid, cold style Value strict, unquestioning obedience AUTHORITATIVE Set firm, clear, consistent limits Allow disagreement and use reasoning, explanations, consequences Supportive parenting

40. Effective Parenting: Teaching Desired Behavior PERMISSIVE- INDIFFERENT Uninvolved in children's lives Set few limits PERMISSIVE- INDULGENT Involved with children Place little or no limits or control on children's behavior

41. Parenting Styles

42. Does parental discipline style result in differences in child behavior?

43. See how they grow… Authoritarian parents = withdrawn, socially awkward children Permissive parents = dependent, moody, low social skilled children Uninvolved parents = emotionally detached, unloved, and insecure children Authoritative parents = independent, friendly, self- assertive, and cooperative.

44. Remember… Baumrind research findings chiefly apply to Western societies Childrearing practices that parents are urged to follow reflect cultural perspectives –nature of children –role of parents No single parenting pattern or style is likely to be universally appropriate or likely invariably to produce successful children

45. Child Abuse and Psychological Maltreatment Five children are killed daily by caretakers 140,000 are physically injured Three million are abused or neglected annually in U.S.

46. Types of Child Abuse

47. True or False? Child abuse can occur in any home or child care setting!

48. Stressful environments increase likelihood for abuse Poverty Single- parent homes High levels of marital discord Substance abuse

49. What else? Vague demarcation between permissible and impermissible forms of physical violence –Line between “spanking” and “beating” is not clear –Spankings begun in anger can escalate into abuse Privacy of child care setting Unrealistic expectations

50. What Are the Warning Signs of Child Abuse?

51. So why then does abuse occur? Children are more likely to be victimized when they are: Fussy Resistant to control Slow to adapt to new situations Overly anxious Frequent bedwetters Developmentally delayed

52. It is crucial to remember… Labeling children as high risk for abuse does not make them responsible for their abuse!

53. What do the experts tell us about causality? CYCLE-OF-VIOLENCE HYPOTHESIS argues that abused and neglected children suffer predisposes them to be abusive adults Tension Building Abusing Incident Making Up

54. Psychological Maltreatment Not all abuse is physical! Psychological maltreatment –Occurs when parents or other caretakers harm children's behavioral, cognitive, emotional, or physical functioning –May take form of neglect in which parents may ignore or act emotionally unresponsive –Not as easily identified without outward physical signs

55. What are consequences of psychological maltreatment? Some children survive and grow into psychologically healthy adults Others suffer long-term damage –Low self-esteem, depression, suicide –Lying –Misbehavior –Underachievement in school –Criminal behavior

56. Abuse and Brain Development: A Tragic Relationship Brains of victims undergo permanent changes Reductions in size of amygdala and hippocampus in adulthood Changes due to overstimulation of the limbic system

57. Three Cheers for the Survivors! A Closer Look at Resilient Children Resilience Ability to overcome circumstances that place child at high risk for psychological and/or physical damage Resilient children Exhibit ability to overcome circumstances that place child at high risk for psychological and/or physical functioning

58. Werner (1995) Resilient infants Temperaments that evoke responses from wide variety of caregivers Affectionate, easy going, good-natured Easily soothed as infants Able to evoke whatever support available in environment Resilient children Socially pleasant, outgoing, good communication skills Relatively intelligent, independent Realistic

59. Disciplining Children For most children in Western cultures, authoritative parenting works best Spanking is never an appropriate discipline technique Tailor parental discipline to the characteristics of the child and the situation Use routines to avoid conflict

60. Review and Apply REVIEW In the preschool years, children develop their ____ true friendships on the basis of personal ____, ____, and shared ____. The character of preschoolers’ ____ changes over time, growing more ____, ____, and ____, and relying increasingly on social skills.

61. Review and Apply REVIEW There are several distinct childrearing styles, including ____, ____, ____, and ____. Childrearing styles show strong ____ influences. Some children suffer ____ from their own family members.

62. Review and Apply APPLY What cultural and environmental factors in the United States may have contributed to the shift from an authoritarian parenting style to an authoritative one since World War II? Is another shift under way?

63. MORAL DEVELOPMENT AND AGGRESSION

64. Moral Development: Following Society's Rights and Wrongs Moral development = children's reasoning about morality, their attitudes toward moral lapses, and their behavior when faced with moral issues Several approaches have evolved Piaget's view of moral development Social learning approaches to morality Genetic approaches to morality

65. Moral Development… The case for right and wrong Changes in sense of justice and of right and wrong Changes in behavior related to moral issues

66. Theoretical Approaches: Piaget HETERONOMOUS MORALITY 4 to 7 years Initial stage of moral development Rules seen as invariant, unchangeable, and beyond child's control and/or influence Intentions not considered Believe in immanent justice (immediate punishment for infractions)

67. Theoretical Approaches: Piaget INCIPIENT COOPERATION STAGE 7 to 10 years Become more social and learn the rules Play according to shared conception of the rules

68. Theoretical Approaches: Piaget AUTONOMOUS COOPERATION STAGE Beginning at 10 years Become fully aware that rules may and can be modified if people playing agree

69. What do Piaget's critics say? Accurate descriptions of how moral development proceeds Underestimates of age at which children's moral skills develop

70. Social Learning Approaches to Morality Focus on how environment produces prosocial behavior Moral conduct learned through reinforcement and modeling Preschoolers more apt to model behavior of warm, responsive, competent, high prestige adults and peers

71. More than mimicking Children do more than simply mimic unthinkingly By observing moral conduct, children are reminded of: Society's norms about importance of moral behavior as conveyed by significant others Connections between particular situations and certain kinds of behavior Abstract modeling

72. Genetic Approaches to Morality Particular genes may underlie some aspects of moral behavior Preschoolers have genetic predisposition to behave generously or selfishly Environment also plays role in determining moral behavior

73. Empathy and Moral Behavior Empathy lies at heart of some kinds of moral behavior Roots of empathy grow as children's ability to monitor and regulate their emotional and cognitive responses increases Empathy and development –Infants –Toddlers –Preschoolers

74. Emotional Self-Regulation Preschool children improve in emotional control Around age 2 –Talk about feelings and engage in regulation strategies Preschoolers –Develop more effective strategies and sophisticated social skills, learn to better cope with negative emotions –Learn to use language to express wishes –Become increasingly able to negotiate with others

75. Aggression and Violence in Preschoolers: Sources and Consequences Aggression Intentional injury or harm to another person; relatively stable trait Early preschool years aggression Often addressed at attaining desired goal Declines through preschool years as does frequency and average length of episodes Extreme and sustained aggression is cause of concern

76. Kinds of Aggression Instrumental aggression Motivated by desire to obtain a concrete goal Higher in boys than girls Relational aggression Intended to hurt another person's feelings through non-physical means Higher in girls than boys

77. Explanations for Aggressive Behavior Among Children FREUD: death drive leads aggressive actions and behavior LORENZ: fighting instinct found in all humans SOCIOBIOLOGISTS: strengthening species drives aggression SOCIAL-LEARNING: prior learning shapes aggression COGNITIVE: interpretation of others’ actions and situations influences aggression

78. Modeling Aggression

79. Viewing Violence on TV: Does It Matter? Overwhelming weight of research evidence suggests that observation of televised aggression does lead to subsequent aggression Children's television programs actually contain higher levels of violence (69 percent) than other types of programs (57 percent) In an average hour, children's programs contain more than twice as many violent incidents than other types of programs Evidence supports the notion that observation of media violence can lead to a greater readiness to act aggressively, bullying, and an insensitivity to the suffering of victims of violence

80. Effects of Video Game or Internet Playing on Children PositiveNegative

81. Becoming an Informed Consumer of Development Increasing Moral Behavior and Reducing Aggression Provide opportunities to observe others acting in a cooperative, helpful, prosocial manner Do not ignore aggressive behavior Help preschoolers devise alternative explanations for others’ behavior Monitor preschoolers’ television viewing, particularly the violence that they view

82. Review and Apply REVIEW Piaget believed that preschoolers are in the ____ morality stage of moral development, in which ____ are seen as invariant and unchangeable. ____ ____ approaches to moral development emphasize the importance of reinforcement for moral actions and the ____ of models of moral conduct. ____ and other theories focus on children's empathy with others and their wish to help others so they can avoid unpleasant feelings of ____ themselves.

83. Review and Apply REVIEW Aggression typically declines in ____ and ____ as children become more able to ____ their emotions and to use language to ____ disputes. ____ and ____ regard aggression as an innate human characteristic, while proponents of social learning and cognitive approaches focus on ____ aspects of aggression.

84. Review and Apply APPLY If high-prestige models of behavior are particularly effective in influencing moral attitudes and actions, are there implications for individuals in such industries as sports, advertising, and entertainment?

85. EPILOGUE Before moving on to the next chapter, this is an appropriate time to take a about Alison Gopnik's two-year-old son, and answer the following questions: In what ways do the actions of Alison Gopnik's son indicate that he is developing a theory of mind? Is Erikson's framework of moral development helpful in interpreting the boy's actions in this instance? Why or why not?

86. EPILOGUE Do you think the boy's reaction would have been different if his father had collapsed on the couch after a bad day instead of his mother? Why or why not? How might social learning approaches to morality and the concept of empathy explain the son's actions in helping his mother? Can you discuss the boy's actions in terms of emotional self-regulation?