1. 1 Psychology 320: Gender Psychology Lecture 45

2. 2 Midterm The exam is worth 20% of your final grade. The exam will be scored out of 75 points. February 10: 35 multiple choice questions (1 point each), 5 definitions (2 points each). February 12: Short answer questions (ranging in value from 2-8 points).

3. 3 Please arrive on time to facilitate rapid distribution of the exams. Bring a pencil, eraser, pen, and your student ID to the exam. All electronic devices must be put away; the time will be monitored in 5 minute increments on the overhead projector. Students may not leave the exam room during the last 10 minutes of the exam. Hats (e.g., baseball caps) should not be worn during the exam.

4. 4 Careers and Work: 1. What forms of discrimination are encountered in the workplace? 2. Do females and males experience similar levels of job satisfaction?

5. 5 What forms of discrimination are encountered in the workplace? There are two forms of discrimination that males and females encounter in the workplace.

6. 6 1. Access discrimination:  Occurs when hiring decisions are made (e.g., who is hired, what position s/he is offered).  More likely to occur when job qualifications are ambiguous.  Example: Rent-A-Center, 2002.

7. 7 2. Treatment discrimination:  Occurs after hiring decisions have been made (e.g., salary, opportunities for promotion, opportunities for professional development, working conditions).  Characterized by the “glass ceiling” and “glass escalator.”  Substantial research has examined one form of treatment discrimination—the pay disparity between females and males.

8. 8 MalesFemalesPercentage Gap 198119912001198119912001198119912001 Overall40,13136,40536,53629,74429,21129,99525.019.817.9 No high school36,60332,02230,47823,99322,83522,01934.528.727.8 High School38,92934,22732,80427,79326,45125,50628.622.722.2 Non-University Post-Secondary Certificate 41,78937,87136,68830,69529,06227,86126.523.324.1 University Degree 44,65242,21945,05437,68437,06636,78215.612.218.4 Disparity in Mean Pay by Sex and Education Level, 1981-2001 (Statistics Canada, 2007)

9. 9 DisciplineMalesFemales Education35,55233,877 Arts34,52929,524 Humanities36,42033,214 Social Sciences41,68435,133 Commerce47,96740,191 Life Sciences36,35433,076 Engineering52,06744,867 Health46,90742,841 Math, Computer Sciences, Physical Sciences 49,534 41,301 Disparity in Mean Pay by Sex and Area of Study, 2001 (Statistics Canada, 2007)

10. 10 Weekly Earnings by Sex (US Department of Labor, 2006)

11. 11 Evidence of Treatment Discrimination at UBC (UBC Faculty Focus, 2009) With respect to starting salary, female faculty are paid an average of $1,667 less than male faculty. With respect to yearly salary, female faculty are paid an average of $14,827 less than male faculty. Over a 35-year career, the average female professor makes $267,000 less than her male counterpart. Average award amounts are 10% lower for female faculty than male faculty. 13% of female faculty achieve the rank of full professor, whereas 46% of male faculty achieve the rank of full professor. Female faculty achieve the rank of full professor after an average of 13 years, Male faculty achieve the rank of full professor after an average of 10 years. Although 44% of faculty are female, only 17% of heads and directors are female.

12. 12 CountryWomen’s % of Men’s Earnings CountryWomen’s % of Men’s Earnings Canada65.8Greece83.8 United Kingdom75.7Italy85.7 United States77.9Spain86.8 Austria78.9France89.2 Netherlands78.9Denmark89.6 Ireland80.2Belgium92.7 Germany80.6Portugal94.1 Percent of Men’s Wages Earned by Women in Various Countries (International Labor Office, 2004; Statistics Canada, 2004; US Department of Labor, 2003)

13. 13  Notably, the sex-related pay gap is smaller among ethnic minorities, younger (i.e., 16-24) populations, and those who are entering the workforce.  Two theories have been proposed to account for pay discrepancies across the sexes:

14. 14 (a) Supply-Side Theory (Human Capital Theory) Maintains that the characteristics of males and females account for pay inequities. Examples of characteristics of males and females (i.e., “supply-side characteristics”) that may contribute to pay inequities:

15. 15 Number of hours worked. Occupational experience. Negotiation of salary: Females are less likely than males to engage in salary negotiation (Walters et al., 1998). Gerhart and Rynes (1991) found that males’ negotiations led to a 4.3% yearly salary increase, whereas females’ negotiations led to a 2.7% yearly salary increase: Occupational choice: Within occupations, however, females are paid less than males. Educational background.

16. 16 Salary (Thousands of Dollars) Projected Salary of a Male and Female Over the Ages of 25 to 65 with a 4.3% and 2.7% Salary Increase Per Year, Respectively Age

17. 17 Females are less likely to engage in salary negotiation than males because: they are more likely to feel unsure of themselves, to believe that they do not deserve to be paid more than others, to believe that conflict will jeopardize the negotiation relationship, to believe in meritocracy, and to experience anxiety during the negotiation (Barron, 2003).

18. 18 (b) Demand-Side Theory Maintains that discrimination accounts for pay inequities. Examples of discrimination shown by employers: Some employers pay females less than males because they believe that females are less likely to leave their position due to “family ties” (Helgeson, 2009).

19. 19 Some employers pay mothers less than fathers because they believe that mothers are the primary caregivers of their families and, thus, cannot be as productive as their male counterparts. This phenomenon is known as the “motherhood penalty,” with many mothers encountering the “maternal wall.” Several lines of evidence support the motherhood penalty:

20. 20 1. Employed mothers are perceived as less competent than individuals without children (Cuddy et al., 2004). 2. Employed mothers are perceived as less competent and committed than employed fathers (Correll et al., 2007; Heilman & Okimoto, 2008).

21. 21 5. Sex differences in pay are larger for couples with children than couples without children: 4. Respondents indicate a preference to promote and train a woman without a child than a woman with a child, but a preference to promote and train a man with a child than a man without a child. 3. Respondents set more stringent hiring standards for women with children than women without children, but more lenient hiring standards for men with children than men without children.

22. 22 69% 77% 63% Weekly Earnings Percent Pay Gap As a Function of Parental Status (Dey & Hill, 2007)

23. 23 “Motherhood is now the single greatest obstacle left in the path to economic equality for women” (Crittenden, 2001). In her book The Price of Motherhood: Why the Most Important Job in the World Is Still the Least Valued, Crittenden (2001) states:

24. 24 Do females and males experience similar levels of job satisfaction? Although females are more likely than males to encounter discrimination in the workplace, research reveals no sex differences in overall job satisfaction (Crosby, 1984; Martinez, 2005). Factors that may account for this finding include the following:

25. 25 (b) females report receiving greater social support in the workplace than males. (c) females, like members of other disadvantaged groups, tend to deny personal experiences of discrimination: (a) as noted already, females have lower salary expectations than males.

26. 26 Crosby (1984)  Found that female participants received between $5,000 and $8,000 less than their male counterparts, demonstrating widespread treatment discrimination against the females surveyed.  Matched male and female participants on prestige of job, education, job experience, number of hours worked, age, and marital status (i.e., supply-side characteristics).

27. 27  Nevertheless, females did not report less job satisfaction or more grievances than males.  Moreover, although the vast majority of females agreed with the statement “Are women discriminated against?”, the vast majority of females disagreed with the statement “Are you at present the victim of sex discrimination.”  Thus, although the female participants recognized that women are subject to discrimination, they denied the personal experience of discrimination.

28. 28 Careers and Work: 1. What forms of discrimination are encountered in the workplace? 2. Do females and males experience similar levels of job satisfaction?