1. Chapter 10 – 11 Chapter 10: “European Interests & Imperialism” Chapter 11: “Westernizing Reform in 19 th Century”

2. Ottoman Weakness In 1683, Ottomans fails to take Vienna 1699 they cede Hungary to Habsburg Empire and Aegean Coast to Venetians 1714 they lost Crimea 1798 Napoleon occupies Egypt and invades Palestine

3. Westernizing Reform in 19 th Century “European power rose so dramatically between the 16 th and 19 th centuries that every other part of the world had to adapt or go under” (p.169)

4. Egypt – 19th Century Napoleon was sent by France’s revolutionary government in 1798 to conquer Egypt, Syria and Iraq. He defeated the Mamluks and occupied Cairo Read Napoleon’s statement (p.171 – 172) France’s occupation was harsh and hated. Lasted until 1801 when Brits and Ottomans pushed him out. Egypt remained as an autonomous part of the Ottoman Empire

5. Mehmet Ali (an Albanian who came w/ Ottoman force in 1799 to dislodge Napoleon) takes power Ali has all the Mamluks massacred in 1811 Ali puts private land under state control, thus giving him control of agricultural lands “Egypt became the first Middle Eastern country to make the shift from subsistence agriculture to cash crop farming” (p.173) Ali uses revenues for industrial and military development Ali forces Egyptians to serve as soldiers Ali breaks ties with Ottomans when he aligns with western powers against the Ottomans in the Greek independence war Egypt takes Syria from Ottomans in 1832

6. Westernization of Ottoman Empire Sultan Selim III (r. 1789 – 1807) failed with military reform efforts. Janissaries kill him and much of Ottoman family Janissaries – elite Ottoman infantry units comprised of Christian youth and prisoners of war Sultan Mahmud II (r. 1808 – 1839) enters throne with many problems to deal with: 1.Balkan provinces were basically being run by warlords 2.Cities within Anatolia were being held by janissaries 3.Russia was invading Romania 4.Ottoman allies, the Brits, were tangled up with Napoleon Mahmud II

7. Mahmud sought to westernize by reorganizing military and centralized power In 1826, he suddenly struck against and defeated the janissaries Brought in new weapons and European military instructors Expanded military and naval engineering schools Abolished lower political posts to centralize power back into Sultan’s hands

8. Military Defeat and European Protection (Ottomans) In 1829, with Russian help and backing of western powers, Greece won independence from the Ottoman Empire despite Mahmud’s reorganized military Mahmud’s army is also unable to dislodge Egyptians from Syria in 1833 Ottomans realize they need military protection Hunkar – Iskelesi Treaty is forged between Russia and Ottoman Empire in 1833: 1.Russia will defend the Ottomans 2.Ottomans grant Russian warships the right to pass through the Straits of Europe

9. Tanzimat Era (Reorginization) (Ottomans) Abdulmejid (r. 1839 – 1861) reforms Ottoman public life: 1.Establishes state school system 2. Creates network of roads, canals and rail lines 3. Created a modern financial system with a Central Bank and currency

10. When Russia began its attempts to gain control in the Balkans, the Ottomans broke away and sided with the British and French. (hence gaining military protection from them) They all clash in the Crimean War (1853 – 1856). Ottomans, with British and French help, win the war and regain control of the Balkans As a result of its latest alliance with western powers, Abdulmejid issues the 1856 Imperial Rescript which gives all Ottoman subjects equal protection under the law This angers Muslims who don’t want to give Christians and Jews any power

11. Expansion of Ottoman Empire

12. Decline of Ottoman Empire

13. Persia Under the Qajars (1794 – 1925) “Persia was the only country outside the Arabian Peninsula never absorbed by the Ottomans” (p.180) Russia, pushing southward, had visions of taking the Persian Gulf region Britain, concerned with defense of India and spread of Russian power, backed the Persian government even as they seized parts of its southern territory Qajars based themselves in the mountain city of Tehran while countryside was ruled by absentee landlords and nomads

14. We must mention Fath Ali Shah (r. 1797 – 1834) : 1.158 wives 2. 103 children 3. 600 grandchildren

15. Nasiruddin Shah (r. 1848 – 1896) made attempts at western reform but was more interested in personal wealth and treasures “Instead of using reform to protect Persia from foreigners, the Shah encouraged them to take over his country” (p.182)

16. Reasons Why Westernizing Reforms Had Little Success in Middle East 1.Muslim culture and values were threatened 2. Reforms were costly 3. Was a lack of trained personnel to run westernized institutions 4. Western powers were really only in the region pursuing financial interests, and abandoned Middle East powers when their interests weren’t at stake 5. Russia continuously weakened the Ottoman and Persian Empires by attacking their borders, causing both to focus on military and defense at all costs ** All of these setbacks would lead to the rise of nationalism in the Middle East **