3. polymers The most important biological compounds are polymers many Polymers (poly = many) proteins, carbohydrates, lipids nucleic acids  The polymers are: proteins, carbohydrates, lipids (fats), and nucleic acids (DNA/RNA). monomers  A polymer is made up of a chain of many monomers linked together

4. MONOMERS (mono = one) amino acids, sugars, fatty acids, nucleotides.  Monomers are: amino acids, sugars, fatty acids, and nucleotides. (dehydration synthesis) (hydrolysis)  These are made (dehydration synthesis) or broken down (hydrolysis) over and over in living cells.

5. _______________ Large polymers are also called _______________ macromolecules Macromolecules are formed by _________________, usually by reactions involving the loss of water = ________________________. joining monomers DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS

6. ____________ are joined together during dehydration synthesis. Chains of monomers are called _________ MONOMERS POLYMERS Note: enzymes that speed up dehydration synthesis reactions are called _____________. dehydrogenases

7. Note: enzymes that speed up hydrolysis reactions are called __________ hydrolases The breaking of a polymer into units is ______________ (i.e. done by adding water to polymer). HYDROLYSIS

8. Polymers Monomers (sub units)

9. Polymers a) b) c) d)

10. Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) c) d)

11. Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) c) d) Hydrolysis

12. Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) c) d) H 2 O & Energy Hydrolysis

13. Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) c) d) Monomers a) b) c) d) H 2 O & Energy Hydrolysis

14. Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) c) d) Monomers a) Simple sugars b) c) d) H 2 O & Energy Hydrolysis

15. Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) c) d) Monomers a) Simple sugars b) c) d) H 2 O & Energy Hydrolysis

16. Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) c) d) Monomers a) Simple sugars b) c) d) H 2 O & Energy Hydrolysis Dehydration Synthesis

17. Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) c) d) Monomers a) Simple sugars b) c) d) H 2 O & Energy Hydrolysis Dehydration Synthesis H 2 O & Energy

18. Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins c) d) Monomers a) Simple sugars b) c) d) H 2 O & Energy Hydrolysis Dehydration Synthesis H 2 O & Energy

19. Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins c) d) Monomers a) Simple sugars b) Amino Acids c) d) H 2 O & Energy Hydrolysis Dehydration Synthesis H 2 O & Energy

20. Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins c) Lipids (fats) d) Monomers a) Simple sugars b) Amino Acids c) d) H 2 O & Energy Hydrolysis Dehydration Synthesis H 2 O & Energy

21. Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins c) Lipids (fats) d) Monomers a) Simple sugars b) Amino Acids c) Fatty Acids & Glycerol d) H 2 O & Energy Hydrolysis Dehydration Synthesis H 2 O & Energy

22. Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins c) Lipids (fats) d) DNA/RNA (nucleic acids) Monomers a) Simple sugars b) Amino Acids c) Fatty Acids & Glycerol d) H 2 O & Energy Hydrolysis Dehydration Synthesis H 2 O & Energy

23. Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins c) Lipids (fats) d) DNA/RNA (nucleic acids) Monomers a) Simple sugars b) Amino Acids c) Fatty Acids & Glycerol d) Nucleotides H 2 O & Energy Hydrolysis Dehydration Synthesis H 2 O & Energy

24. Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins c) Lipids (fats) d) DNA/RNA (nucleic acids) Monomers a) Simple sugars b) Amino Acids c) Fatty Acids & Glycerol d) Nucleotides H 2 O & Energy Hydrolysis Dehydration Synthesis H 2 O & Energy These reactions require: 1.

25. Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins c) Lipids (fats) d) DNA/RNA (nucleic acids) Monomers a) Simple sugars b) Amino Acids c) Fatty Acids & Glycerol d) Nucleotides H 2 O & Energy Hydrolysis Dehydration Synthesis H 2 O & Energy These reactions require: 1.ATP energy

26. Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins c) Lipids (fats) d) DNA/RNA (nucleic acids) Monomers a) Simple sugars b) Amino Acids c) Fatty Acids & Glycerol d) Nucleotides H 2 O & Energy Hydrolysis Dehydration Synthesis H 2 O & Energy These reactions require: 1.ATP energy 2.Water

27. Polymers a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins c) Lipids (fats) d) DNA/RNA (nucleic acids) Monomers a) Simple sugars b) Amino Acids c) Fatty Acids & Glycerol d) Nucleotides H 2 O & Energy Hydrolysis Dehydration Synthesis H 2 O & Energy These reactions require: 1.ATP energy 2.Water 3.Enzymes

28. Where does the name come from? (CH 2 0)n Hydrated Carbons: (CH 2 0)n (CH 2 0)n Carbohydrates have the empirical formula of (CH 2 0)n where n = the # of times the chain is repeated. 1:2:1 The carbons, hydrogens and oxygens are found in the ratio of 1:2:1 and are made up of a repeating chain of sugars. saccarides Sugars are also known as saccarides. ose Carbohydrates usually end in ‘ose’. Can you think of any examples? (CH 2 0) 3 =(CH 2 0) 6 = C3H603C3H603C3H603C3H603 C 6 H 12 0 6

29. GLUCOSE C 6 H 12 O 6. The basic sugar molecule is GLUCOSE: C 6 H 12 O 6. ring Glucose has a ring structure. fructose, ribose, deoxyribose Other monosaccharides include fructose, ribose, deoxyribose

30. 6 sided =HEXOSE PENTOSE 5 sided = PENTOSE C 6 H 12 O 6

31. DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS When two sugars bind together via DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS a disaccharide is formed.

32. maltose glucose + glucose forms the sugar maltose sucrose glucose + fructose forms the sugar sucrose lactose galactose + glucose forms the sugar lactose

33. When many sugars bind together via dehydration synthesis four types of polysaccharides may be formed: StarchStarch GlycogenGlycogen CelluloseCellulose ChitinChitin

34. cell walls The cell walls of plants are made of cellulose long chainsno side chains They are long chains of glucose molecules with no side chains. The linkage between the Carbon atoms of the sugars is different than starch and glycogen No mammal can break this bond cannot digestFIBRE5. This is why we cannot digest cellulose = FIBRE.

35. Plants store their energyPlants store their energy as starch Starch is made up of many glucose molecules linked together few side chainsStarch has few side chains

36. Animals store their energy (extra glucose) as glycogen Animals store their energy (extra glucose) as glycogen liver and musclesWe store glycogen in our liver and muscles Glycogen is made up of many glucose molecules linked together many side chains Glycogen has many side chains

37. animals and fungi Made by animals and fungi covalent bonds Long glucose chains linked with covalent bonds. strong Very strong exo-skeletons claws Makes structures like exo-skeletons, fingernails, claws, and beaks

39. 1. Energybonds are brokenreleased 1. Energy: when the bonds between Carbon atoms are broken, the energy released can be used by cells. Carbohydrates are the primary energy molecules for all life. 2. Structural cell wall 2. Structural: Cellulose is the major structural compound in plants (is used in the cell wall).

40. C,H,O Lipids are made up of the elements C,H,O but in no set ratio. insoluble in water Lipids are large molecules that are insoluble in water.

41. Synthesis of a FAT animation: http://www2.nl.edu/jste/lipids.htm http://www2.nl.edu/jste/lipids.htm

42. 3 fatty acids 1 glycerol 1.Composed of 3 fatty acids bonded to 1 glycerol. long chain 2.Fatty acids contain a long chain of 16-18 Carbons with an acid end. small 3 Carbon chain 3.Glycerol is a small 3 Carbon chain with 3 alcohol (OH) groups 4.These two molecules bind together via dehydration synthesis

43. 1. Saturated fats: no double bonds There are no double bonds in the carbon chains of the fatty acids. hydrogens The carbons are filled with hydrogens. Unhealthy Unhealthy. animals They mostly come from animals. solid Become solid at room temperature. butter Examples: lard, butter, animal fats…

45. 2. Unsaturated fats: monounsaturated double bondspolyunsaturated There are one (monounsaturated) or more double bonds (polyunsaturated). plants Mostly come from plants. liquid They are liquid at room temperature.Healthy olive oil Examples: olive oil, corn oil, palm oil…

48. cell membrane Are used to make up the two layered cell membrane of all cells. third fatty acid replaced by phosphate groupPO 4 3- In phospholipids, the third fatty acid group of a triglyceride is replaced by an inorganic phosphate group (PO 4 3- ).

49. polar end This creates a polar end: phosphatehydrophilic The phosphate end is water soluble (hydrophilic) fatty acidhydrophobic The fatty acid is not water soluble (hydrophobic)

52. hydrophobic hydrophilic

53. water insoluble Steroids structurally look very different from lipids, but are also water insoluble. 4 Carbon ring They are made up of 4 Carbon ring molecules fused together. testosterone cholesterolD Examples: testosterone, estrogen, cholesterol, and vitamin D. sex hormones Used as sex hormones

55. 1.Long term storage for energy 1.Long term storage for energy (more efficient spacewise than glycogen or starch). 2.Insulation protection 2.Insulation and protection in animals hormones 3.Making some hormones (steroids) cell membranes 4.Structure of cell membranes. Without lipids, we would have no cells.

56. Found in fish and leafy vegetables Other foods are now offering omega-3’s (eggs, cereals, margarine…) Help to reduce cancer Helps with vision Helps us think better

57. Scientific evidence has shown that dietary saturated and trans fats can increase your risk of developing heart disease.

58. C,H,O, and N 1.Proteins are made up of the elements C,H,O, and N (but in no set ratio). Amino Acids75 or more 2.Proteins are chains of Amino Acids (usually 75 or more) that bond together via dehydration synthesis. 3.40% 3.40% of the average human body is made up of protein.

59. 1.The building blocks of Proteins are amino acids. three parts 2.There are three parts to an amino acids: 1.Amino Group 1.Amino Group (NH 2 or NH 3 + ) acts as a base (accepts H + ) 2.Carboxyl Group 2.Carboxyl Group (COOH or COO - ) acts as an acid (donates H + ) 3.R Group20 3.R Group: there are 20 different possible R groups

61. A Amino acids bond together via dehydration synthesis. peptide bond The amino acids bind together with a peptide bond. C and N The PEPTIDE bond is formed between C and N and one water is lost (dehydration synthesis).

62. DIPEPTIDE When the original two amino acids form the beginning of the chain (with one peptide bond) it is called a DIPEPTIDE.

63. TRIPEPTIDE Then the chain grows to become a TRIPEPTIDE.

64. POLYPEPTIDE 30 and 30,000 Ultimately you end up with a POLYPEPTIDE (which can have anywhere between 30 and 30,000 amino acids). protein Another name for a polypeptide is protein.

65. ORDER of amino acids Every protein is different because the ORDER of amino acids is different. order of the different R groupshow they bond The chains come together differently due to the order of the different R groups and how they bond together. This structural difference also makes the polypeptides (proteins) functionally different.

66. first level This is the first level of how proteins are formed. order of amino acids It is simply the order of amino acids joined together with peptide bonds. It is the amino acid sequence that determines the nature and chemistry of the protein. change the order do its job If you change the order of amino acids, the protein may not be able to do its job.

67. This is the second step in the formation of a protein. negativeCOO - When a peptide bond is formed, a double bonded oxygen is left over, which is partially negative (the carboxyl group: COO - ). positive NH 3 + It is attracted to the positive NH 3 + amino group from other amino acids in the chain. HYDROGEN BOND This attraction forms a HYDROGEN BOND. alpha helixbeta pleated sheet This causes the chain to twist into either a spiral called an alpha helix or a beta pleated sheet.

69. between the R groups The next interactions take place between the R groups. reactive chargedsulphur atom Some R groups are reactive and will interact with other reactive R groups in the chain. These are the amino acids that are either charged or that have a sulphur atom. + and –S-S bridges specific 3-dimensional shape The interactions ( + and – attractions and S-S bridges) will fold the molecule over into a highly specific 3-dimensional shape. job It is the 3-D shape that will determine the protein’s job or role in the body.

73. not seen The last level in protein formation is not seen in all proteins. 2 or more ionic bond However, some proteins are actually 2 or more molecules joined to form a functional protein. They are held together with an ionic bond. Two examples: Insulin2 Insulin has 2 subunits Hemoglobin4 Hemoglobin has 4 subunits.

75. Peptide Peptide Bonds Hydrogen Hydrogen Bonds R groups Interactions between R groups Ionic Ionic Bonds

76. specific The final shape of a protein (its tertiary or quaternary structure) is very specific and enables it to do its job/function. changeshapefunction Any change in a proteins’ shape will affect its function. Denaturation is when a protein's tertiary structure is lost. bonds between the R groups are broken This happens when the bonds between the R groups are broken. useless When a protein is denatured, the protein can’t do its job and becomes useless.

77. How can this happen? There are three common ways: 1.Temperature: distort or break High temperatures affect the weak Hydrogen bonds and can distort or break them, thus changing the structural shape. reversible irreversible A slight increase in temperature an cause a reversible change (ie: fever). A high temperature increase can cause an irreversible change (ie: cooking an egg).

78. 2. Chemicals: lead and mercury Heavy metals such as lead and mercury are large atoms that are attracted the R groups of amino acids. bond to the R group They bond to the R group and distort the protein’s shape. irreversible This is usually irreversible (they usually don’t want to ‘let go’). How can this happen? There are three common ways:

79. 3. pH: preferred pH As some of the R groups are acids and some are bases, every protein (enzyme) has a preferred pH. change in the acid-base R group shape Any change in pH causes a change in the acid-base R group interactions and this will change the shape of the protein.

80. 1. Structural: proteins help make up all structures in living things Keratin Keratin: nails, hair, horns, feathers muscle Actin & Myosin: muscle proteins Collagen Collagen: bones, teeth, cartilage, tendon, ligament, blood vessels, skin matrix

81. functioning properlydigest our food 2. Functional: other proteins help us to keep our bodies functioning properly and to digest our food. Hemoglobin Enzymes catalysts Enzymes: are proteins that are catalysts which speed up reactions and control all cell activities.

82. 3.Food Source 3.Food Source: once we have used up all of our carbohydrates and fats, proteins will be used for energy. least amount of energy Proteins are worth the least amount of energy per gram. Anorexia and Bolimia

83. acidic nucleus Nucleic acids are acidic molecules that are found in the nucleus of cells. LARGE There are two types, both of which are very LARGE. Deoxyribonucleic Acid 1. DNA: Deoxyribonucleic Acid Ribonucleic Acid 2. RNA: Ribonucleic Acid

84. NUCLEOTIDES All nucleic acids are composed of units called NUCLEOTIDES, which are composed of three sub-molecules: Pentose Sugar 1. Pentose Sugar (ribose or deoxyribose) Phosphate 2. Phosphate Nitrogen Base 3. Nitrogen Base (purine or pyrimidine)

85. They are formed by joining their subunits together via dehydration synthesis (nucleotide + nucleotide … = nucleic acid). complex This is quite a complex process to which we will devote an entire unit to.

86. AdenineGuanine Adenine and Guanine two Have two rings both DNA and RNA Found in both DNA and RNA Memory Trick: Memory Trick: It’s Got 2 Be GAP

87. Uracil CytosineThymine Uracil Cytosine, Thymine, and Uracil one Have only one ring both Cytosine is in both DNA and RNA DNA only Thymine is in DNA only RNA only Uracil is in RNA only Memory Trick: Memory Trick: CUT the Pyramid

88. Structure of DNA: two complimentary strands DNA is composed of two complimentary strands of nucleotides. hydrogen bonds The two strands are joined by hydrogen bonds which form between complimentary nitrogen bases: Adenine with Thymine Adenine with Thymine (A-T or T-A) 2 They join with 2 hydrogen bonds Cytosine with Guanine Cytosine with Guanine (C-G or G-C) 3 They join with 3 hydrogen bonds

90. two linear strands When DNA is first made, it is just two linear strands of nucleotides joined together. double helix Due to internal bonding, the DNA molecule then forms into a double helix (twisted ladder).

91. a)Directs and controls all cell activities proteinsenzymes a)Directs and controls all cell activities by making all of the proteins and enzymes genetic information b) Contains all of the genetic information necessary to make one complete organism of very exact specifications

92. DNA RNA is made by DNA. into the cytoplasm It is not confined to the nucleus, it moves out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm of the cell. Ribose It has Ribose sugar instead of Deoxyribose. thyminesURACIL’s It has no thymines, and uses URACIL’s instead. single stranded It is single stranded and therefore, no helix is formed. 3 types There are 3 types of RNA. assist DNA in making proteins The function of RNA is to assist DNA in making proteins.

95. DNARNA Nitrogen bases: A,T,G,CNitrogen bases: A, U, G, C Sugar: deoxyriboseSugar: ribose Double strandedSingle stranded 1 type 3 types: a) mRNA – messenger b) tRNA – transfer c) rRNA – ribosomal Found in the nucleus onlyFound in the nucleus and the cytoplasm Forms a double helixNo helix DNA makes DNADNA makes RNA Very big moleculeMuch smaller molecule

96. nucleic acid structure THREE phosphate groups ATP is also thought of as a nucleic acid as it has the same structure as a nucleotide. The only difference is that it has THREE phosphate groups instead of one. energy source This is the energy source for the body.

97. C6H12O6 + 6O2 -----> 6CO2 + 6H20 + energy (heat and ATP) mitochondriaglucoseATP Our mitochondria turn the energy of glucose into ATP. energy break that bondreleased Why is it a good molecule to store energy? It takes a lot of energy to put two phosphate molecules together (both –’ve). So when you break that bond, a lot of energy is released.