1. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. MICROBIAL GENETICS Chapter 8

2. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. QUESTION OF THE DAY…  E. coli is found naturally in the human large intestine, and there it is beneficial. However, the strain designated E. coli O157:H7 produces Shiga toxin. How did E. coli acquire this gene from Shigella?

3. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Terminology  Genetics: The study of what genes are, how they carry information, how information is expressed, and how genes are replicated  Gene: A segment of DNA that encodes a functional product, usually a protein  Chromosome: Structure containing DNA that physically carries hereditary information; the chromosomes contain the genes  Genome: All the genetic information in a cell

4. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. More Terminology  Genomics: The molecular study of genomes  Genotype: The genes of an organism  Phenotype: Expression of the genes

5. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.1a E. Coli – Genetic Map of E.Coli

6. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.2 The Flow of Genetic Information

7. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.3b DNA  Polymer of nucleotides: Adenine, __________, cytosine, and guanine  Double helix associated with proteins  "Backbone" is __________-phosphate  Strands are held together by___________ bonds between AT and CG  Strands are antiparallel

8. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.3a Semiconservative Replication

9. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.4 DNA Synthesis

10. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. DNA Synthesis  DNA is copied by DNA polymerase  In the 5'  3' direction  Initiated by an RNA primer  Leading strand is synthesized continuously  Lagging strand is synthesized discontinuously  Okazaki fragments  RNA primers are removed and Okazaki fragments joined by a DNA polymerase and DNA ligase

11. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 8.1

12. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.5 DNA Synthesis

13. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.6 Replication of Bacterial DNA

14. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Transcription  DNA is transcribed to make RNA (mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA)  Transcription begins when RNA polymerase binds to the promoter sequence  Transcription proceeds in the 5'  3' direction  Transcription stops when it reaches the terminator sequence

15. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.7 The Process of Transcription

16. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.7 The Process of Transcription

17. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.11 RNA Processing in Eukaryotes

18. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.2 Translation  mRNA is translated in codons (three nucleotides)  Translation of mRNA begins at the start codon: AUG  Translation ends at nonsense codons: UAA, UAG, UGA

19. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.2 The Genetic Code  64 sense codons on mRNA encode the 20 amino acids  The genetic code is degenerate  tRNA carries the complementary anticodon

20. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.8 The Genetic Code

21. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.10 Simultaneous Transcription & Translation

22. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.9 The Process of Translation

23. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.9 The Process of Translation

24. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.9 The Process of Translation

25. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.9 The Process of Translation

26. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.9 The Process of Translation

27. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.9 The Process of Translation

28. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.9 The Process of Translation

29. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.9 The Process of Translation

30. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Regulation  Constitutive genes are expressed at a fixed rate  Other genes are expressed only as needed  Repressible genes  Inducible genes  Catabolite repression

31. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.12 Operon

32. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.12 Induction

33. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.12 Induction

34. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.13 Repression

35. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.13 Repression

36. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.14 (a) Growth on glucose or lactose alone (b) Growth on glucose and lactose combined Catabolite Repression

37. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.  Lactose present, no glucose  Lactose + glucose present Figure 8.15 QUESTION: What is the role of cAMP in catabolite repression?

38. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Mutation  A change in the genetic material  Mutations may be neutral, beneficial, or harmful  Mutagen: Agent that causes mutations  Spontaneous mutations: Occur in the absence of a mutagen

39. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.  Base substitution (point mutation)  Missense mutation Mutation  Change in one base  Result in change in amino acid Figure 8.17a, b

40. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.  Nonsense mutation Mutation  Results in a nonsense codon Figure 8.17a, c

41. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Mutation  Frameshift mutation  Insertion or deletion of one or more nucleotide pairs Figure 8.17a, d

42. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.  Spontaneous mutation rate = 1 in 10 9 replicated base pairs or 1 in 10 6 replicated genes  Mutagens increase to 10 –5 or 10 –3 per replicated gene The Frequency of Mutation

43. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.19a Chemical Mutagens

44. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Radiation  Ionizing radiation (X rays and gamma rays) causes the formation of ions that can react with nucleotides and the deoxyribose-phosphate backbone

45. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.20 Radiation  UV radiation causes thymine dimers

46. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.20 Repair  Photolyases separate thymine dimers  Nucleotide excision repair

47. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Selection  Positive (direct) selection detects mutant cells because they grow or appear different  Negative (indirect) selection detects mutant cells because they do not grow  Replica plating QUESTION: How would you isolate an antibiotic-resistant bacterium? An antibiotic-sensitive bacterium?

48. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.21 Replica Plating

49. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.22 Ames Test for Chemical Carcinogens QUESTION: What is the principle behind the Ames test?

50. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.  Vertical gene transfer: Occurs during reproduction between generations of cells.  Horizontal gene transfer: The transfer of genes between cells of the same generation. Genetic Recombination

51. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.23 Genetic Recombination  Exchange of genes between two DNA molecules  Crossing over occurs when two chromosomes break and rejoin

52. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.25 Genetic Recombination

53. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.24 Genetic Transformation

54. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.26 Bacterial Conjugation

55. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.27a Conjugation in E. coli

56. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.27c ANIMATION Hfr Conjugation ANIMATION Chromosome MappingANIMATION F Factor ANIMATION Conjugation: Overview Conjugation in E. coli

57. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. ANIMATION Generalized Transduction Figure 8.28 ANIMATION Specialized Transduction Transduction by a Bacteriophage

58. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. QUESTION OF THE DAY…  E. coli is found naturally in the human large intestine, and there it is beneficial. However, the strain designated E. coli O157:H7 produces Shiga toxin. How did E. coli acquire this gene from Shigella?

59. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Plasmids  Conjugative plasmid: Carries genes for sex pili and transfer of the plasmid  Dissimilation plasmids: Encode enzymes for catabolism of unusual compounds  R factors: Encode antibiotic resistance

60. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.30a, b Transposons  Segments of DNA that can move from one region of DNA to another  Contain insertion sequences for cutting and resealing DNA (transposase)  Complex transposons carry other genes

61. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 8.30c Transposons

62. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Genes and Evolution  Mutations and recombination provide diversity  Fittest organisms for an environment are selected by natural selection

63. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Clinical Focus, p. 223 Evolution

64. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Evolution Strain % Similar to Uganda Kenya71% U.S.51%  Which strain is more closely related to the Uganda strain?  How did the virus change?