1. Chapter 15: Social groups Slides prepared by Randall E. Osborne, Texas State University-San Marcos, adapted by Dr Mark Forshaw, Staffordshire University, UK and Laura Smith, University of Bristol, UK 1

2. Social Behaviour: Culture 2

3. The Role of Culture Modern Psychology uses evolution by natural selection (Dawkins, 1976) as a framework for understanding human behaviour However this approach fails to take account of the role of culture A key example of cultural differences are those between individualistic and collectivistic cultures 3

4. Individualistic Vs. Collectivistic Japanese adults recalled 60% more information about the backgrounds of underwater vignettes than US adults. (Masuda and Nisbett, 2001) 4

5. Individualistic Vs. Collectivistic Japanese pay more attention to relative context than US participants who live in Western individualist societies (Triandis, 1995) Westerners fixate more on focal objects than Easterners, who also fixate on the background more (Chua, Boland & Nisbett, 2005) 5

6. Social Behaviour: Living in Groups 6

7. Groups Law-abiding, rational individuals often behave differently when they start hanging around together in a group Why? –Deindividuation –social loafing bystander intervention diffusion of responsibility –group polarization ‘groupthink’ hypothesis 7

8. Groups One of the best predictors of a person’s general happiness and life satisfaction is quality and extent of social relationships and group memberships People who are excluded show brain activity similar to pain! –Social pain hypothesis (see Chapter 14) –Dorsal anterior cingulate is activated when a person is ostracized 8

9. Social Identity Theory ‘part of the individual’s self-concept which derives from their knowledge of their membership of a social group (or groups) together with the value and emotional significance of that membership.’ –Henri Tajfel (1981) 9

10. Theory of Self-Categorization Individuals can hold multi-layered notions of self- identity depending on how they view their group membership. - At the basic level there is the individual who is different from others. (Turner et al., 1987) - Refer to Figure 15.2, pg. 594 in Psychology 10

11. Behaving in groups Social facilitation –improved individual performance in the company of others. Social inhibition –where the presence of others inhibits or impairs performance Spotlight effect –people’s over-estimation of the amount of attention others are paying to them Evaluation apprehension –performance is affected by how people think they are being judged 11

12. Behaving in groups Group work –Social loafing when people expend less effort when working in a group than when working alone –Shame vs. Guilt In collectivist societies loafing behavior is considered to be shameful because you are not meeting the expectations of others, whereas in individualist cultures people are more likely to experience guilt for failing to meet their own standards. 12

13. Deindividuation A perceived loss of individual identity accompanied by diminished self-regulation –Less self aware –Less inhibited –More impulsive –Increased arousal The Lucifer effect - Zimbardo (2007) believes that many acts of cruelty can be explained by deindividuation 13

14. Thinking in groups Groupthink –where people set aside individual opinions and doubts in favour of achieving a group consensus Group polarization –where attitudes and decisions tend to become more extreme than those held and made by individuals. 14

15. Influencing others 15

16. Influencing others Social influence: –Linked to social acceptance Normative influence: following standard procedure Norm of reciprocity Door in the face technique Conformity –Asch, Milgram, Obedience to Authority 16

17. Attitudes Attitude –An evaluation of a person or event that endures Belief –informational influence –persuasion –consistency 17

18. Persuasion Systematic persuasion –Changing attitudes using appeals to reason –Logic, critical thinking Heuristic persuasion –Changing attitudes using appeals to habit or emotional response –Non-logical 18

19. Consistency Foot-in-the-door technique Cognitive dissonance — effort justification –dissonance and attitude change –hazing and cognitive dissonance? 19

20. Thinking about others 20

21. Stereotyping Categorization Stereotyping –often inaccurate –overused –self-perpetuating –automatic 21

22. Stereotypes — Can Be Inaccurate Form stereotypes without direct evidence Illusory correlation –When rare things happen in small groups, we assume it is typical of the group somewhat 22

23. Stereotypes – Can Be Overused Because stereotypes are sometimes useful –A tendency to use them too often –Most men are stronger than most women true –Some women are stronger than most men true, but seen as counter to stereotype so less likely to be asserted 23

24. Stereotypes — Can Be Self- Perpetuating Perceptual confirmation Self-fulfilling prophecy –expectations influence actions which result in outcomes that confirm original expectations –just asking people to list their race before taking the SAT can influence performance –stereotype threat –subtype exceptions 24

25. Stereotypes — Can Be Automatic Can happen unconsciously and automatically Cannot decide not to use that information Not inevitable — requires effort to stop Can be reduced with education 25

26. Prejudice A negative evaluation of, and attitude towards individuals based on negative group stereotypes –Sexism –Ageism –Homophobia –Racism Linked to a high need for structure and high scores on measures of right-wing authoritarianism. 26

27. Robber’s Cave Experiment –Boys at a summer camp were split into groups with their own names and flags (Sherif et al., 1961). Intergroup conflict in both competitive and non- competitive situations Conflict only resolved when they had superordinate goals –These are goals that depend on the collaboration of the two groups 27