1. Educating Spatial Intelligence Nora S. Newcombe Temple University Talk at National Geographic Society November 2008

2. Standing on the Shoulders of Giants, Preaching to the Converted Penn State spatial discussion group UC-Santa Barbara NCGIA and Varenius Projects Learning to Think Spatially

3. Nevertheless, Separated Communities Lead to Differences

4. Four Arguments Spatial intelligence and learning are important Spatial intelligence and learning can be improved There are sex-linked and SES-linked differences in spatial intelligence--addressing these differences is important for social equity There are sex-linked and SES-linked differences in spatial intelligence--addressing these differences is important for social equity Spatial intelligence and learning are critically under-studied Specific educational techniques to foster spatial intelligence are within our grasp

5. Four Arguments Spatial intelligence and learning are important Spatial intelligence and learning can be improved There are sex-linked and SES-linked differences in spatial intelligence--addressing these differences is important for social equity There are sex-linked and SES-linked differences in spatial intelligence--addressing these differences is important for social equity Spatial intelligence and learning are critically under-studied Specific educational techniques to foster spatial intelligence are within our grasp

6. Spatial Intelligence and Learning Are Important In an evolutionary context, spatial adaptation is vital In modern life, spatial thinking is used both in everyday tasks and in reasoning and communication In scientific thought and communication, spatial skills are particularly central

7. Basic Adaptation Way Finding Tool Making

8. Everyday Life

9. Reasoning and Communication Graphs and diagrams InferenceAnalogyMetaphor

10. Performance in STEM Disciplines PhysicsChemistryBiologyEngineeringMathematicsGeoscience

11. Predicting B.A. Degree Areas From Shea, Lubinski & Benbow (2001)

12. What We Still Need Do improvements in spatial skill translate into greater STEM interest and ability? How important are any such effects? How important are any such effects? How do such effects compare with other influences, e.g., work-family conflicts? Do such effects reduce sex- and SES-based differences in STEM participation? Do such effects reduce sex- and SES-based differences in STEM participation? Does early spatial skill relate to early STEM learning?

13. Four Arguments Spatial intelligence and learning are important Spatial intelligence and learning can be improved There are sex-linked and SES- linked differences in spatial intelligence--addressing these differences is important for social equity There are sex-linked and SES- linked differences in spatial intelligence--addressing these differences is important for social equity Spatial intelligence and learning are critically under-studied Specific educational techniques to foster spatial intelligence are within our grasp

14. Especially Important For Girls Spatial Transformation Score Frequency Levine, Huttenlocher, Taylor & Langrock (1999)

15. Social Class Effects and the Male Advantage (Levine, Vasilyeva, Lourenco, Newcombe & Huttenlocher, Psychological Science, 2005) Aerial Maps Mental Rotation

16. Not Just Because of Difficulty Level (Levine, Vasilyeva, Lourenco, Newcombe & Huttenlocher, Psychological Science, 2005)

17. Some Prior Reasons To Believe in Malleability Effects of practice and training Baenninger & Newcombe (1989) Baenninger & Newcombe (1989) Effects of simple instructions Ward, Newcombe & Overton (1986) Ward, Newcombe & Overton (1986) School effects Huttenlocher, Levine & Vevea (1998) Huttenlocher, Levine & Vevea (1998)

18. New Data on Malleability New meta-analysis supports large training effects, as well as durability and transfer Liu, Uttal, Marulis, Lewis, Warren, & Newcombe, under review Liu, Uttal, Marulis, Lewis, Warren, & Newcombe, under review David Uttal will present this later on David Uttal will present this later on Two specific recent studies on improvement that is durable and transferable Terlecki, Newcombe & Little (Applied Cognitive Psychology, 2008) Terlecki, Newcombe & Little (Applied Cognitive Psychology, 2008) Wright, Thompson, Ganis, Newcombe & Kosslyn (Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 2008) Wright, Thompson, Ganis, Newcombe & Kosslyn (Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 2008)

19. Five Questions about Improvement in Mental Rotation Skills What is the shape of long-term growth trajectories? Does videogame training have effects exceeding simple practice? Do growth trajectories differ for men and women, and for individuals of higher or lower spatial experience? Are practice and training effects durable? Do practice and training transfer, and is transfer durable?

20. Training One hour per week for a semester Tetris or Solitaire Tetris or Solitaire Weekly MRT administration

21. Time Course of Improvement Terlecki, Newcombe & Little, 2008

23. Improvement is Durable Terlecki, Newcombe & Little, 2008

24. Transfer is Durable and Tetris Augments Transfer Terlecki, Newcombe & Little, 2008

25. Five New Aims Training intensive enough to produce large gains but shorter than a semester Novel stimuli: to assess stimulus-specific versus general effects Symmetric look at transfer: A to B and also B to A Non-spatial task to make sure transfer is spatially-specific Componential analysis: intercept versus slope effects

26. Three Tasks

27. Training 21 consecutive days, about 20 minutes per day Either MRT or Paper Folding

28. Transfer Across Spatial Tasks Wright, Thompson, Ganis, Newcombe & Kosslyn, Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 2008

30. Goals for New Training Studies Delineate mechanisms of improvement and possible additivity of methods Allowing for tailored recommendations about sequencing and aptitude-treatment interactions Allowing for tailored recommendations about sequencing and aptitude-treatment interactions Tim Shipley will present progress report on an adult study of this kind How should we best enhance spatial learning in children? Methods that are more play, less work Gesture, puzzle play, paper folding, block play Gesture, puzzle play, paper folding, block play Training in different SES groups

31. More Goals What are the neural correlates of improvements? Do they provide clues as to mechanism? Do they provide clues as to mechanism? How do we improve way finding skills? Is there far transfer from visualization to way finding and vice versa? (Again) What are the implications of improvements for STEM learning? Different at various ages? Different at various ages? Different for different disciplines or sub-areas? Different for different disciplines or sub-areas?

32. Four Arguments Spatial intelligence and learning are important Spatial intelligence and learning can be improved There are sex-linked and SES-linked differences in spatial intelligence--addressing these differences is important for social equity There are sex-linked and SES-linked differences in spatial intelligence--addressing these differences is important for social equity Spatial intelligence and learning are critically under-studied Specific educational techniques to foster spatial intelligence are within our grasp

33. Spatial Framework Two spatial frames Object (internal relations that define shape) Scene (external relations that define relations among objects) Two temporal properties Static (unchanging relations) Dynamic (changing relations)

34. The 2 by 2 Framework Object Static Dynamic Scene

35. One Application of the Framework: Language Manner Verb Object Static Dynamic Scene Path Verb Preposition Noun

36. The Third Dimension: Scale Different processes for different scales (particularly peri-personal space) Object versus scene at many scales

37. Domain General Processes There are many such processes and most of them are relevant to spatial learning In SILC, we have been concentrating on: Analogy Analogy Gesture Gesture Working memory Working memory Perceptual learning Perceptual learning In addition, specific skills (e.g., understanding diagrams) involves non- spatial content mastery (e.g., of diagrammatic conventions)

38. Symbolic Representation Language Brings up classic “language and thought” issues Spatial representations Maps Graphs Diagrams

39. Static Scene Representations: Hierarchical Coding Model Categorical or qualitative Fine-grained or coordinate or metric Bayesian combination Leads to Method to diagnose categories Method to diagnose categories Work on natural scenes and geoscience expertise Way to think about development Way to think about development Way to think about neural bases of spatial coding Way to think about neural bases of spatial coding Anjan Chatterjee will talk about this later

40. Dynamic Representations: Mental Transformations May Be Formally But Not Psychologically Equivalent Rotate object (or array) vs move viewer

41. 41 Dynamic Scene Representations Navigation can be guided by Egocentric coding Egocentric coding Allocentric coding Allocentric coding Landmarks/place learning Gradients such as slope Daniele Nardi will present Daniele Nardi will present work on this later Most work of this kind is on groups or normative development—individual differences?

42. 42 Morris Water Maze

43. 43 Morris Water Maze Room Cue 1 3 2

44. The Emergence of Place Learning  Considerable evidence, from a wide variety of techniques, that place learning depends on hippocampus Animal studies: e.g., Morris, Garrud, Rawlins, & O’Keefe (1982) Animal studies: e.g., Morris, Garrud, Rawlins, & O’Keefe (1982) Human studies: e.g., Holdstock et al. (2000) Human studies: e.g., Holdstock et al. (2000) Place learning seems to emerge between 18 and 24 months of age

45. 45 New Research Questions Are there individual differences in early place learning abilities?Are there individual differences in early place learning abilities? Do language and spatial representations develop independently?Do language and spatial representations develop independently? What is the relationship between the developing brain and emergent behavior?What is the relationship between the developing brain and emergent behavior?

46. 46 Balcomb & Newcombe Subjects Children aged 16-24 months Children aged 16-24 monthsMaterials 10’ diameter carpeted circle divided into quadrants 10’ diameter carpeted circle divided into quadrants Battery operated puzzle Battery operated puzzleTask Locate puzzle hidden under carpet Locate puzzle hidden under carpet Remember puzzle location Remember puzzle location

47. 47

48. 48 Procedures FamiliarizationLearning 4 trials to learn the puzzle’s location 4 trials to learn the puzzle’s location Different points of entry Different points of entryTest Same as learning trials Same as learning trials No puzzle No puzzleControl Control for motivation & walking speed Control for motivation & walking speed Puzzle clearly visible Puzzle clearly visible

49. Spatial Results

50. Space and Language Measure Nouns Verbs Preps# times goal found # searches under “other” Nouns--.87.72.21 (.34).36 (.09) Verbs--.80.11 (.61).34 (.10) Preps--.42 (.05).20 (.34) # times goal found ---.2 (.35) Intercorrelations between language and spatial searches

51. Conclusions and Implications Place learning and expressive language develop independently in 16-24 month old children BUT--Acquisition of prepositions and place learning do correlate BUT--Acquisition of prepositions and place learning do correlate Individual differences measure allows us to address relations with other abilities Episodic memory (not spatial but should correlate) Episodic memory (not spatial but should correlate) Mental rotation (spatial but may not correlate) Mental rotation (spatial but may not correlate) New way to address structure of intellect in comparative and neuroscience-inspired context New way to address structure of intellect in comparative and neuroscience-inspired context

52. Four Arguments Spatial intelligence and learning are important Spatial intelligence and learning can be improved There are sex-linked and SES-linked differences in spatial intelligence--addressing these differences is important for social equity There are sex-linked and SES-linked differences in spatial intelligence--addressing these differences is important for social equity Spatial intelligence and learning are critically under-studied Specific educational techniques to foster spatial intelligence are within our grasp

53. Some Examples The use of analogical comparison in teaching geoscience Dedre Gentner Dedre Gentner Understanding young children’s difficulties with measurement—and ameliorating them Susan Levine & Kristin Ratliff Susan Levine & Kristin Ratliff The importance of spatial language to children Just a few examples now Just a few examples now Many others Spatial toolkit will bring them togethe r Spatial toolkit will bring them togethe r

54. Teachers Vary in Spatial Input (Levine & Huttenlocher) Instances of spatial talk in one hour of coded tape

55. And Input is Correlated with Children’s Spatial Growth (Levine & Huttenlocher)

56. Play Contexts Pre-assembled Play Free Play Guided Play

57. Parental Spatial Language in Four Contexts

58. How Do We Accelerate Pace and Scope of Study of These Issues? Spatial Network at www.spatiallearning.org www.spatiallearning.org Resources at same URL Sian Beilock is coordinating Sian Beilock is coordinating Gatherings like this one! Thanks to Danny Edelson and the NGS Thanks to Danny Edelson and the NGS

59. Four Arguments Spatial intelligence and learning are important Spatial intelligence and learning can be improved There are sex-linked and SES-linked differences in spatial intelligence--addressing these differences is important for social equity There are sex-linked and SES-linked differences in spatial intelligence--addressing these differences is important for social equity Spatial intelligence and learning are critically under-studied Specific educational techniques to foster spatial intelligence are within our grasp