1. Research in Psychology Chapter Two 8-10% of Exam AP Psychology

2. Theories  tentative explanations that must be subjected to scientific evaluation  constantly being formulated, evaluated, reformulated, and sometimes abandoned based on research results

3. Goals of Psychological Research  describe phenomenon  make predictions  demonstrate some control over variables  explain the phenomenon with confidence

4. Naturalistic Observation  Feature: The process of watching without interfering as behavior occurs in the natural environment  Strengths: Provides descriptive data about behavior presumably uncontaminated by outside influences  Pitfalls: Observer bias and participant self- consciousness can distort results

5. Case Studies  Feature: Intensive examination of the behavior and mental processes associated with a specific person, group or situation.  Strengths: Provide detailed descriptive analysis of new, complex, or rare phenomenon.  Pitfalls: May not provide representative picture of phenomena.

6. Surveys  Feature: Standard set of questions asked of a large number of participants – asks people about their behavior, attitudes, beliefs, and opinions  Strengths: Gather large amounts of descriptive data relatively quickly and inexpensively.  Pitfalls: Sampling errors, poorly phrased questions, and response biases can distort results.

7. Correlational Studies  Feature: Examine relationships between research variables.  Strengths: Can test predictions, evaluate theories, and suggest new hypotheses.  Pitfalls: Cannot infer causal relationships between variables.

8. Correlation  Correlation – the degree to which one variable is related to another

9. Correlation Coefficients  Correlation Coefficient – a statistic, r, that summarizes the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables Correlation coefficient Indicates direction of relationship (positive or negative) Indicates strength of relationship (0.00 to 1.00) r = +.37

10. Experiments  Feature: Manipulation of an independent variable and measurement of its effects on a dependent variable.  Strengths: Can establish a cause-effect relationship between independent and dependent variables.  Pitfalls: Confounding variables may prevent valid conclusions.

11. Key Terms in experiments— KNOW THEM!!!  Hypothesis  Independent Variable  Dependent Variable  Operational Definition  Experimental Group  Control Group  Confounding Variables  Random Variables  Participant Expectations  Placebo  Confirmation Bias

12. Figure 2.1: A Simple Two-Group Experiment Independent Variable: Whether or not one received the EMDR treatment. Dependent Variable: Anxiety level.

13. Sources for Confounding Variables  Random Variables  Importance of random assignment  Participants’ Expectations  Placebo effect  Experimenter Bias  Can be minimized through the use of a double-blind design

14. Selecting Human Participants for Research  Sampling = the process of selecting participants for research  The sampling procedures used can:  Affect the research results.  Limit the meaning of the results

15. Representative Samples  A group of research participants whose characteristics fairly reflect the characteristics of the population from which they were selected  If psychologists want to make scientific statements about the behavior and mental processes of any large group, they must use a representative sample of participants

16. Random vs. Biased Samples  Random - A group of research participants selected from a population whose members all had an equal chance of being chosen  Biased – A group of research participants selected who did not have an equal chance of being chosen

17. Convenience Samples  Populations that are conveniently available to the researcher  Researcher must check age, gender, ethnicity, and other characteristics of participants

18. Statistical Analysis of Research Results  Descriptive Statistics - #s that DESCRIBE a set of research data  Measures of Central Tendency  Measures of Variability  Correlation Coefficients  Inferential Statistics – a set of mathematical procedures that help researchers INFER what their data mean

19. Measures of Central Tendency for Descriptive Statistics  Mean – average  Median – halfway point  Mode – occurs most frequently

20. Measures of Variability  Range – difference between highest and lowest values  Standard Deviation (SD) – average distance between each score and the mean of the data set

21. Table 2.4: A Set of Pretreatment Anxiety Ratings