1. THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE The nature of knowledge

2. Knowledge  What is it?  A “Thick Concept”?  How is it different from belief?

3. Knowledge as justified belief  Perhaps the difference between knowledge and belief is one of degree rather than kind…..  Belief – knowledge continuum  Rather than think of knowledge as being completely different from belief it makes more sense to think of a range between -10 -5 0+5 +10 Impossible Unlikely PossibleProbable Certain Unjustified Beyond reasonable Truth – “beyond reasonable doubt” doubt

4. Justification  We might justify our knowledge claims by appealing to one of the ways of knowing  Language ‘Someone told me’  Sense Perception ‘I saw it’  Reason ‘I worked it out’  Emotion ‘It’s intuitively obvious’  Reliability of justifications – e.g. telepathy  Context – When you say you ‘know’ something to what extent are you taking responsibility for its being true?

5. Levels of Knowledge  Knowledge and Information  Superficial knowledge  Facts don’t equate to understanding  Reflection on information can lead to further knowledge Seeing v Observing

6. Second-hand knowledge  Knowledge by authority or knowledge by testimony Communal knowledge – communication – progress “Standing on the shoulders of giants”  Cultural tradition – the inherited wisdom of the community  School – Selectivity = education v indoctrination?  Internet – Urban Legends  News Media – Bad News Bias, Extraordinary news, Relevant news  Expert opinion – fallibility, limited range of competence  Authority Worship  Longevity of belief is no guarantee of truth  Second-hand knowledge is never an original source of knowledge

7. Questions  P32 Q1 The philosopher Betrand Russell (1872-1970) once observed that ‘In most countries certain ideas are recognized as correct and others as dangerous. Teachers whose opinions are not correct are expected to keep silent about them’ What opinions, if any, are teachers in your country expected to keep silent about and to what extent can this be justified?  P33 Q 2 What criteria would you use for distinguishing generally trustworthy websites from generally untrustworthy ones?  P34 Q 3 Can we speak of expert opinion in all areas of knowledge, or only in some of them? Give reasons  P36 Q 1 When, if ever would you be willing to trust the authority of other people rather than the evidence of your own senses?