1. Methods of Comparison

2. Direct vs. Inverse Relationships ► Direct – If one variable increases, the other variable also increases ► Ex.) As education increases, literacy rate increases ► Inverse – One variable decreases as another increases ► Ex.) As education increases, rate of unemployment decreases

3. Normative vs. Empirical Approaches ► Empirical – describes and explains facts and factual relationships  Free from value statements ► Ex.) The U.S. has a higher level of economic development than Nigeria. ► Normative – deals with what one thinks should be or what ought to be  Usually deals with value statements such as “right” or “wrong”, or “good” or “bad” ► Ex.) Nigeria would be better off with more foreign investment.

4. Correlation and Causation ► It may rain whenever I wash my car, but washing my car is not the cause of the rain.  This relationship isn’t based on causation, just simply correlation ► Correlation – describes a relationship or an association b/w 2 (or more) different variables  Does not necessarily mean that one variable causes the other

5. ► To establish causality requires a stronger demonstration of a cause-and-effect relationship  This requires analysis and testing

6. Another Example: The correlation between TV viewing and ADHD ► Some say that excessive TV viewing causes or at least contributes to the development of ADHD in very young kids ► But, others say it might be that kids prone to ADHD are drawn to TV  Thus, TV viewing is not the cause but just a symptom of ADHD

7. Role of Bureaucracies in Modern Nation-States ► Bureaucracies = agencies that implement govt. policy ► Size and number greatly increased throughout 20 th century  Bureaucracies have assumed increasing rule- making powers in most political systems